Identification and characterization of a novel short-type peptidoglycan recognition protein in Apostichopus japonicus

Structure, Function, and Regulation of LytA: The N-Acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine Amidase Driving the "Suicidal Tendencies" of Streptococcus pneumoniae-A Review

Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is a significant human pathogen responsible for a range of diseases from mild infections to invasive pneumococcal diseases, particularly affecting children, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Despite pneumococcal conjugate vaccines having reduced disease incidence, challenges persist due to serotype diversity, vaccine coverage gaps, and antibiotic resistance. This review highlights the role of LytA, a key autolysin (N-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine amidase), in pneumococcal biology. LytA regulates autolysis, contributes to inflammation, and biofilm formation, and impairs bacterial clearance. It also modulates complement activation, aiding immune evasion. LytA expression is influenced by environmental signals and genetic regulation and is tied to competence for genetic transformation, which is an important virulence trait, particularly in meningitis. With the increase in antibiotic resistance, LytA has emerged as a potential therapeutic target. Current research explores its use in bacteriolytic therapies, vaccine development, and synergistic antibiotic strategies. Various compounds, including synthetic peptides, plant extracts, and small molecules, have been investigated for their ability to trigger LytA-mediated bacterial lysis. Future directions include the development of novel anti-pneumococcal interventions leveraging LytA's properties while overcoming vaccine efficacy and resistance-related challenges. Human challenge models and animal studies continue to deepen our understanding of pneumococcal pathogenesis and potential treatment strategies.

Molecular and functional characterization of short peptidoglycan recognition proteins in Vesicomyidae clam

Within cold seep environments, the Vesicomyidae clam emerges as a prevalent species, distinguished by its symbiotic relationship with microorganisms housed within its organ gill. Given the extreme conditions and the symbiotic nature of this association, investigating the host's immune genes, particularly immune recognition receptors, is essential for understanding their role in facilitating host-symbiotic interactions. Three short peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) were identified in the clam. AmPGRP-S1, -S2, and -S3 were found to possess conserved amidase binding sites and Zn2+ binding sites. Quantitative Real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed differential expression patterns among the PGRPs. AmPGRP-S1 and AmPGRP-S2 exhibited elevated expression levels in the gill, while AmPGRP-S3 displayed the highest expression in the adductor muscle. Functional experiments demonstrated that recombinant AmPGRP-S1, -S2, and -S3 (rAmPGRPs) exhibited binding capabilities to both L-PGN and D-PGN (peptidoglycan). Notably, rAmPGRP-S1 and -S2 possessed Zn2+-independent amidase activity, while rAmPGRP-S3 lacked this enzymatic function. rAmPGRPs were shown to bind to five different bacterial species. Among these, rAmPGRP-S1 inhibited Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, while rAmPGRP-S2 and -S3 inhibited Bacillus subtilis in the absence of Zn2+. In the presence of Zn2+, rAmPGRP-S1 and -S2 exhibited enhanced inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus or Bacillus subtilis. These findings suggest that AmPGRPs may play a pivotal role in mediating the interaction between the host and endosymbiotic bacteria, functioning as PGN and microbe receptors, antibacterial effectors, and regulators of host-microbe symbiosis. These results contribute to our understanding of the adaptive mechanisms of deep-sea organisms to the challenging cold seep environments.

Characterization of a novel short-type peptidoglycan recognition protein from the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) represent a key component of the family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). The functional mechanisms of PGRPs in innate immunity are poorly understood. In this study, we identified a novel short-type PGRP, AjPGRP-S2, from the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. Our data showed that AjPGRP-S2 encoded an extracellular protein that possessed a signal peptide, a complete zinc (Zn2+) binding site, and a disulfide bond. A recombinant AjPGRP-S2 (rAjPGRP-S2) lacking the signal peptide was generated and demonstrated to exhibit amidase activity. Tissue expression analysis revealed that AjPGRP-S2 was highly expressed in coelomocytes and tube feet. Immune-responsive analysis indicated that AjPGRP-S2 was able to bind to various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) from bacteria and fungi, as well as to Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, and was majorly induced by DAP-PGN challenge. Basing on RNA-Seq and Pearson's correlation testing, RNA interference, and pull-down analysis, AjPGRP-S2 was found to be involved in transducing immune signals to the complement system and other PRRs, such as fibrinogen, by protein interactions to further recognize and kill pathogens. To respond comprehensively against pathogenic invasion, AjPGRP-S2 may also have the potential in transducing immune signals to key processes, such as cell adhesion, nerve conduction, apoptosis, and transcription by complex pathways that have yet to be elucidated. Our findings not only promote our understanding of the immune-related function and mechanisms of the PGRP family in A. japonicus, but also provide important data that will facilitate the identification of key evolutionary characteristics associated with invertebrate PGRPs.

The interactions between the host immunity and intestinal microorganisms in fish

There is a huge quantity of microorganisms in the gut of fish, which exert pivotal roles in maintaining host intestinal and general health. The fish immunity can sense and shape the intestinal microbiota and maintain the intestinal homeostasis. In the meantime, the intestinal commensal microbes regulate the fish immunity, control the extravagant proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms, and ensure the intestinal health of the host. This review summarizes developments and progress on the known interactions between host immunity and intestinal microorganisms in fish, focusing on the recent advances in zebrafish (Danio rerio) showing the host immunity senses and shapes intestinal microbiota, and intestinal microorganisms tune host immunity. This review will offer theoretical references for the development, application, and commercialization of intestinal functional microorganisms in fish. KEY POINTS: • The interactions between the intestinal microorganisms and host immunity in zebrafish • Fish immunity senses and shapes the microbiota • Intestinal microbes tune host immunity in fish.

A novel short-type peptidoglycan recognition protein with unique polysaccharide recognition specificity in sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are the first line of immune defense in invertebrates against pathogen infection; they recognize pathogens and transmit signals to downstream immune pathways. Among these, peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) are an important family in invertebrates that generally comprise of complicated isoforms. A comprehensive understanding of PGRPs in evolutionarily and economically important marine invertebrates, such as the sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus, is crucial. Previous studies have identified two PGRPs in sea cucumber, AjPGRP-S and AjPGRP-S1, and another novel short-type PGRP, AjPGRP-S3, was additionally identified here. The full-length cDNA sequence of AjPGRP-S3 was obtained here by PCR-RACE, followed by which showed its gene expression analyses by in situ hybridization that showed it to be relatively highly expressed in coelomocytes and tube feet. Based on an analysis of the recombinant protein, rAjPGRP-S3, a board-spectrum pathogen recognition ability was noted that covered diverse Gram-negative and -positive bacteria, and fungi. Moreover, according to the results of yeast two-hybridization, it was suggested that rAJPGRP-S3 interacted with multiple immune-related factors, including proteins involved in the complement system, extracellular matrix, vesicle trafficking, and antioxidant system. These findings prove the important functions of AjPGRP-S3 in the transduction of pathogen signals to downstream immune effectors and help explore the functional differences in the AjPGRP isoforms.

Immune functions of pattern recognition receptors in Lepidoptera

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), as the "sensors" in the immune response, play a prominent role in recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and initiating an effective defense response to pathogens in Lepidoptera. It is becoming increasingly clear that damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) normally play a physiological role within cells; however, when exposed to extracellular, they may become "part-time" critical signals of the immune response. Based on research in recent years, we review herein typical PRRs of Lepidoptera, including peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP), gram-negative binding protein (GNBP), β-1,3-glucan recognition protein (βGRP), C-type lectin (CTL), and scavenger receptor (SR). We also outline the ways in which DAMPs participate in the immune response and the correlation between PRRs and immune escape. Taken together, these findings suggest that the role of PRRs in insect innate immunity may be much greater than expected and that it is possible to recognize a broader range of signaling molecules.

Functions of lysin motif (LysM)-containing protein in antibacterial responses of sea cucumbers, Apostichopus japonicus

The lysin motif (LysM)-containing protein is one of widespread pattern-recognition receptors in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Numerous LysM-containing gene sequences are present in gene databases; however, few have been well characterized, especially in echinoderms. In this study, the full-length cDNA of a novel LysM-containing gene was obtained from the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus, named AjLysM-1, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) combined with rapid amplification of cDNA ends. We prepared and expressed recombinant AjLysM-1 protein (rAjLysM-1) and determined its pathogen-recognition ability by enzyme-linked immunosorbent and immunofluorescence assays. We also analyzed the tissue expression pattern and response to immune challenges of AjLysM-1 using quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR and in situ hybridization. The AjLysM-1 protein was predicted to be an intracellular non-secreted LysM-containing protein, highly homologous to the same protein in other marine echinoderms. AjLysM-1 transcripts were highest expressed in coelomocytes and were strikingly induced by challenge with representative bacterial and fungal polysaccharides. rAjLysM-1 showed weak binding to mannan, Pseudoalteromonas nigrifaciens, and Shewanella baltica, implying that AjLysM-1 might provide inadequate defense against Gram-negative bacteria and fungi. Notably, rAjLysM-1 also interacted with tyrosine protein kinase and filamin-B, indicating that it could be involved in focal adhesion in A. japonicus. These findings improve our understanding of the functions of LysM-containing proteins in marine echinoderms.

Bioactive immunostimulants as health-promoting feed additives in aquaculture: A review

Bioactive immunostimulants could be derived from different sources like plants, animals, microbes, algae, yeast, etc. Bioactive immunostimulants are the most significant role to enhance aquatic production, as well as the cost of this method, which is effective, non-toxic, and environment-friendly. These immunostimulants are supportive to increase the immune system, growth, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and disease resistance of aquatic animals' health and also improve aquatic animal feed. Diseases are mainly targeted to the immune system of aquatic organisms in such a way that different processes of bioactive immunostimulants progress are considered imperative techniques for the development of aquaculture production. Communicable infections are the main problem for aquaculture, while the mortality and morbidity connected with some outbreaks significantly limit the productivity of some sectors. Aquaculture is considered the mainly developing food production sector globally. Protein insists is an important issue in human nutrition. Aquaculture has been an exercise for thousands of years, and it has now surpassed capture fisheries as the most vital source of seafood in the world. Limited study reports are available to focal point on bioactive immunostimulants in aquaculture applications. This review report provides information on the nutritional administration of bioactive immunostimulants, their types, functions, and beneficial impacts on aquatic animals' health as well as for the feed quality development in the aquaculture industry. The scope of this review combined to afford various kinds of natural derived bioactive molecules utilization and their beneficial effects in aquaculture applications.

A short peptidoglycan recognition protein protects Boleophthalmus pectinirostris against bacterial infection via inhibiting bacterial activity

Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) belong to a member of pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), which proposed as antibacterial protein. The present study investigated the antibacterial effect of BpPGRP5 in great blue-spotted mudskipper (Boleophthalmus pectinirostris). BpPGRP5 transcript was detected in all tested tissues with the highest expression level in spleen, and its expression was significantly upregulated in spleen, intestine, and kidney following Aeromonas veronii infection. rBpPGRP5 was found to interact with several polysaccharides and bacteria, including Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and A. veronii) and Gram-positive bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus). rBpPGRP5 inhibited the proliferation of E. coli, S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, and A. veronii in a Zn²⁺-dependent manner. Furthermore, in vivo studies revealed that intraperitoneal injection of rBpPGRP5 improved the survival rate of A. veronii-infected B. pectinirostris, accompanied by decreased bacterial load in the blood, kidney, intestine, and spleen. Taken together, our results indicated that BpPGRP5 is an antimicrobial protein that protects B. pectinirostris against bacterial infection.

Xenophagy of invasive bacteria is differentially activated and modulated via a TLR-TRAF6-Beclin1 axis in echinoderms

In marine environments, organisms are confronted with numerous microbial challenges, although the differential regulation of xenophagy in response to different pathogenic bacterial species remains relatively unknown. Here, we addressed this issue using Apostichopus japonicus as a model. We identified 39 conserved autophagy-related genes by genome-wide screening, which provided a molecular basis for autophagy regulation in sea cucumbers. Furthermore, xenophagy of two Gram-negative bacteria, Vibrio splendidus and Escherichia coli, but not a Gram-positive bacteria, Micrococcus luteus, was observed in different autophagy assays. Surprisingly, a significantly higher autophagy capacity was found in the E. coli–challenged group than in the V. splendidus–challenged group. To confirm these findings, two different lipopolysaccharides, LPS^{V. splendidus} and LPS^E. coli, were isolated; we found that these LPS species differentially activated coelomocyte xenophagy. To explore the molecular mechanism mediating differential levels of xenophagy, we used an siRNA knockdown assay and confirmed that LPS^{V. splendidus}-mediated xenophagy was dependent on an AjTLR3-mediated pathway, whereas LPS^E. coli-mediated xenophagy was dependent on AjToll. Moreover, the activation of different AjTLRs resulted in AjTRAF6 ubiquitination and subsequent activation of K63-linked ubiquitination of AjBeclin1. Inversely, the LPS^{V. splendidus}-induced AjTLR3 pathway simultaneously activated the expression of AjA20, which reduced the extent of K63-linked ubiquitination of AjBeclin1 and impaired the induction of autophagy; however, this finding was no t evident with LPS^E. coli. Our present results provide the first evidence showing that xenophagy could be differentially induced by different bacterial species to yield differential autophagy levels in echinoderms.

Molecular and functional identification of a short-type peptidoglycan recognition protein, PGRP-S, in the Chinese soft-shelled turtle Pelodiscus sinensis

Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs), which are discovered in invertebrates and vertebrates, play an important role in antibacterial immunity. However, the function of PGRPs is largely uninvestigated in reptiles. In the present study, a short-type PGRP gene, designed as C-turtle-PGRP-S, was identified in the Chinese soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis. The C-turtle-PGRP-S contains a highly conserved PGRP domain and has close relationship with PGRP-S orthologues in other species according to sequence and phylogenetic analyses. C-turtle-PGRP-S gene was constitutively expressed in all detected tissues and was induced by Edwardsiella tarda. Additionally, recombinant C-turtle-PGRP-S showed PGN binding activity and antibacterial function against E. tarda. Therefore, it is suggested that the function of PGRP-S is likely to be conserved in reptile vertebrates, as observed in other vertebrates, shedding light on the evolutionary conservation of PGRPs.

Molecular Aspects of Regeneration Mechanisms in Holothurians

Holothurians, or sea cucumbers, belong to the phylum Echinodermata. They show good regenerative abilities. The present review provides an analysis of available data on the molecular aspects of regeneration mechanisms in holothurians. The genes and signaling pathways activated during the asexual reproduction and the formation of the anterior and posterior parts of the body, as well as the molecular mechanisms that provide regeneration of the nervous and digestive systems, are considered here. Damage causes a strong stress response, the signs of which are recorded even at late regeneration stages. In holothurian tissues, the concentrations of reactive oxygen species and antioxidant enzymes increase. Furthermore, the cellular and humoral components of the immune system are activated. Extracellular matrix remodeling and Wnt signaling play a major role in the regeneration in holothurians. All available morphological and molecular data show that the dedifferentiation of specialized cells in the remnant of the organ and the epithelial morphogenesis constitute the basis of regeneration in holothurians. However, depending on the type of damage, the mechanisms of regeneration may differ significantly in the spatial organization of regeneration process, the involvement of different cell types, and the depth of reprogramming of their genome (dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation).