The genital microbiome and its potential for detecting sexual assault

Forensic insights from shotgun metagenomics: Tracing microbial exchange during sexual intercourse

The microbiome is becoming an emerging field of interest within forensic science with high potential for individualization; however, little is known about bacterial species specific to the genital area or their ability to transfer between individuals during sexual contact. In this proof-of-concept study, we investigated microbial transfer dynamics in seven monogamous, heterosexual couples by collecting pre- and post-sexual intercourse samples from their genital areas, including penile, vaginal, and labial locations. Utilizing Shotgun Metagenomic Sequencing, we sequenced the microbial profiles of these samples. Our findings reveal significant transfer from the vaginal microbiome onto the penile microbiome, predominantly originating from the labial genitalia. Moreover, strain analysis unveiled distinct differentiation between the same species of bacteria across individuals, underscoring the potential for microbial forensics to distinguish individuals. This study contributes to our understanding of microbial transfer during sexual contact and highlights the forensic implications of the genital microbiome.

Microbial genomics: a potential toolkit for forensic investigations

Microbial forensics is a new discipline of science that analyzes evidence related to biological crime through the uniqueness and abundance of microorganisms and their toxins. Microorganisms remain alive longer than any other trace of biological evidence, such as DNA, fingerprints, and fibers, because of the protective cell membrane or capsules. Microbiological research has opened up various possibilities for forensic investigations of microbial flora. Current molecular technologies, including DNA sequencing, whole-genome sequencing, metagenomics, DNA fingerprinting, and molecular phylogeny, provide valid results for forensic investigations. Recent advancements in genome sequencing technologies, genetic data generation, and bioinformatic tools have significantly improved microbial sampling methods and forensic analyses. In this review, we discuss the applications of microbial genomic tools and technologies in forensic investigations, including human identification, geolocation, and causes of death.

Medico-Legal Applications of the Human Microbiome and Critical Issues Due to Environmental Transfer: A Review

Microbiome has recently seen an increase in its forensic applications. It could be employed to identify a suspect when DNA is not available; it can be used to establish postmortem interval (PMI). Furthermore, it could prove to be fundamental in cases of sexual assault. One of the most interesting aspects to study is how microbiomes are transferred. The aim of this review is to analyze the existing literature focusing on the potential transfer of microbiome from humans to environment. Searches on PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science identified a total of 348 articles. Furthermore, from the bibliographies of the included articles, an additional publication was selected, in accordance with the established inclusion and exclusion criteria. This study has shown the potential of utilizing microbiomes as trace evidence, particularly in connecting individuals to specific environments or objects. However, the variability and dynamics of microbial transfer and persistence need to be carefully addressed.

Exploring the role of the human microbiome in forensic identification: opportunities and challenges

Forensic microbiology is rapidly emerging as a novel tool for human identification. The human microbiome, comprising diverse microbial communities including fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, is unique to each individual, offering a new dimension to forensic investigations. While traditional identification methods primarily rely on DNA profiling and fingerprint analysis, they face limitations when complete DNA or fingerprints profiles are unattainable or degraded. In this context, the microbial signatures of the human skin microbiome present a promising alternative due to their resilience to environmental stresses and individual-specific composition. This review explores the potential of microbiome analysis in forensic human identification, evaluating its applications, advantages, limitations, and future prospects. The uniqueness of an individual's microbial community, particularly the skin microbiota, can provide distinctive biological markers for identification purposes, while technological advancements like 16 S rRNA sequencing and metagenomic shotgun sequencing are enhancing the specificity of microbial identification, enabling detailed analysis of these complex ecological communities. Despite these promising findings, current research has not yet achieved a level of identification probability that could establish microbial analysis as a stand-alone evidence tool. Therefore, it is presently considered ancillary to traditional methods, contributing to a more comprehensive biological profile of individuals.

Skin locations inference and body fluid identification from skin microbial patterns for forensic applications

Given that microbiological analysis can be an alternative method that overcomes the shortcomings of traditional forensic technology, and skin samples may be the most common source of cases, the analysis of skin microbiome was investigated in this study. High-throughput sequencing targeting the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene was performed to reveal the skin microbiome of healthy individuals in Guangdong Han. The bacterial diversity of the palm, navel, groin and plantar of the same individual was analyzed. The overall classification based on 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed that the microbial composition of skin samples from different anatomical parts was different, and the dominant bacterial genus of the navel, plantar, groin and palm skin were dominated by Cutibacterium, Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus, respectively. PCoA analysis showed that the skin at these four anatomical locations could only be grouped into three clusters. A predictive model based on random forest algorithm showed the potential to accurately distinguish these four anatomical locations, which indicated that specific bacteria with low abundance were the key taxa. In addition, the skin microbiome in this study is significantly different from the dominant microbiome in saliva and vaginal secretions identified in our previous study, and can be distinguished from these two tissue fluids. In conclusion, the present findings on the community and microbial structure details of the human skin may reveal its potential application value in assessing the location of skin samples and the type of body fluids in forensic medicine.

Forensic Microbiology: When, Where and How

Forensic microbiology is a relatively new discipline, born in part thanks to the development of advanced methodologies for the detection, identification and characterization of microorganisms, and also in relation to the growing impact of infectious diseases of iatrogenic origin. Indeed, the increased application of medical practices, such as transplants, which require immunosuppressive treatments, and the growing demand for prosthetic installations, associated with an increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance, have led to a rise in the number of infections of iatrogenic origin, which entails important medico-legal issues. On the other hand, the possibility of detecting minimal amounts of microorganisms, even in the form of residual traces (e.g., their nucleic acids), and of obtaining gene and genomic sequences at contained costs, has made it possible to ask new questions of whether cases of death or illness might have a microbiological origin, with the possibility of also tracing the origin of the microorganisms involved and reconstructing the chain of contagion. In addition to the more obvious applications, such as those mentioned above related to the origin of iatrogenic infections, or to possible cases of infections not properly diagnosed and treated, a less obvious application of forensic microbiology concerns its use in cases of violence or violent death, where the characterization of the microorganisms can contribute to the reconstruction of the case. Finally, paleomicrobiology, e.g., the reconstruction and characterization of microorganisms in historical or even archaeological remnants, can be considered as a sister discipline of forensic microbiology. In this article, we will review these different aspects and applications of forensic microbiology.

Evaluation of the Microbiome Identification of Forensically Relevant Biological Fluids: A Pilot Study

In forensic sciences, body fluids, or biological traces, are a major source of information, and their identification can play a decisive role in criminal investigations. Currently, the nature of biological fluids is assessed using immunological, physico-chemical, mRNA and epigenetic methods, but these have limits in terms of sensitivity and specificity. The emergence of next-generation sequencing technologies offers new opportunities to identify the nature of body fluids by determining bacterial communities. The aim of this pilot study was to assess whether analysis of the bacterial communities in isolated and mixed biological fluids could reflect the situation observed in real forensics labs. Several samples commonly encountered in forensic sciences were tested from healthy volunteers: saliva, vaginal fluid, blood, semen and skin swabs. These samples were analyzed alone or in combination in a ratio of 1:1. Sequencing was performed on the Ion Gene StudioTM S5 automated sequencer. Fluids tested alone revealed a typical bacterial signature with specific bacterial orders, enabling formal identification of the fluid of interest, despite inter-individual variations. However, in biological fluid mixtures, the predominance of some bacterial microbiomes inhibited interpretation. Oral and vaginal microbiomes were clearly preponderant, and the relative abundance of their bacterial communities and/or the presence of common species between samples made it impossible to detect bacterial orders or genera from other fluids, although they were distinguishable from one another. However, using the beta diversity, salivary fluids were identified and could be distinguished from fluids in combination. While this method of fluid identification is promising, further analyses are required to consolidate the protocol and ensure reliability.

Applications of microbiology to different forensic scenarios - A narrative review

In contrast to other forensic disciplines, forensic microbiology is still too often considered a "side activity" and is not able to make a real and concrete contribution to forensic investigations. Indeed, the various application aspects of this discipline still remain a niche activity and, as a result, microbiological investigations are often omitted or only approximated, in part due to poor report in the literature. However, in certain situations, forensic microbiology can prove to be extremely effective, if not crucial, when all other disciplines fail. Precisely because microorganisms can represent forensic evidence, in this narrative review all the major pathological forensic applications described in the literature have been presented. The goal of our review is to highlight the versatility and transversality of microbiology in forensic science and to provide a comprehensive source of literature to refer to when needed.

The Oral Microbiome for Geographic Origin: An Italian Study

The human oral microbiome has primarily been studied in clinical settings and for medical purposes. More recently, oral microbial research has been incorporated into other areas of study. In forensics, research has aimed to exploit the variation in composition of the oral microbiome to answer forensic relevant topics, such as human identification and geographical provenience. Several studies have focused on the use of microbiome for continental, national, or ethnic origin evaluations. However, it is not clear how the microbiome varies between similar ethnic populations across different regions in a country. We report here a comparison of the oral microbiomes of individuals living in two regions of Italy - Lombardy and Piedmont. Oral samples were obtained by swabbing the donors' oral mucosa, and the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced from the extracted microbial DNA. Additionally, we compared the oral and the skin microbiome from a subset of these individuals, to provide an understanding of which anatomical region may provide more robust results that can be useful for forensic human identification. Initial analysis of the oral microbiota revealed the presence of a core oral microbiome, consisting of nine taxa shared across all oral samples, as well as unique donor characterising taxa in 31 out of 50 samples. We also identified a trend between the abundance of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota and the smoking habits, and of Spirochaetota and Synergistota and the age of the enrolled participants. Whilst no significant differences were observed in the oral microbial diversity of individuals from Lombardy or Piedmont, we identified two bacterial families - Corynebacteriaceae and Actinomycetaceae - that showed abundance trends between the two regions. Comparative analysis of the skin and oral microbiota showed significant differences in the alpha (p = 0.0011) and beta (Pr(>F)= 9.999e-05) diversities. Analysis of skin and oral samples from the same donor further revealed that the skin microbiome contained more unique donor characterising taxa than the oral one. Overall, this study demonstrates that whilst the oral microbiome of individuals from the same country and of similar ethnicity are largely similar, there may be donor characterising taxa that might be useful for identification purposes. Furthermore, the bacterial signatures associated with certain lifestyles could provide useful information for investigative purposes. Finally, additional studies are required, the skin microbiome may be a better discriminant for human identification than the oral one.

Applications of massively parallel sequencing in forensic genetics

Massively parallel sequencing, also referred to as next-generation sequencing, has positively changed DNA analysis, allowing further advances in genetics. Its capability of dealing with low quantity/damaged samples makes it an interesting instrument for forensics. The main advantage of MPS is the possibility of analyzing simultaneously thousands of genetic markers, generating high-resolution data. Its detailed sequence information allowed the discovery of variations in core forensic short tandem repeat loci, as well as the identification of previous unknown polymorphisms. Furthermore, different types of markers can be sequenced in a single run, enabling the emergence of DIP-STRs, SNP-STR haplotypes, and microhaplotypes, which can be very useful in mixture deconvolution cases. In addition, the multiplex analysis of different single nucleotide polymorphisms can provide valuable information about identity, biogeographic ancestry, paternity, or phenotype. DNA methylation patterns, mitochondrial DNA, mRNA, and microRNA profiling can also be analyzed for different purposes, such as age inference, maternal lineage analysis, body-fluid identification, and monozygotic twin discrimination. MPS technology also empowers the study of metagenomics, which analyzes genetic material from a microbial community to obtain information about individual identification, post-mortem interval estimation, geolocation inference, and substrate analysis. This review aims to discuss the main applications of MPS in forensic genetics.

Phytogenic supplement containing menthol, carvacrol and carvone ameliorates gut microbiota and production performance of commercial layers

Consumer push towards open and free-range production systems makes biosecurity on farms challenging, leading to increased disease and animal welfare issues. Phytogenic products are increasingly becoming a viable alternative for the use of antibiotics in livestock production. Here we present a study of the effects of commercial phytogenic supplement containing menthol, carvacrol and carvone on intestinal microbiota of layer hens, microbial functional capacity, and intestinal morphology. A total of 40,000 pullets were randomly assigned to two sides of the experimental shed. Growth performance, mortality, egg production and egg quality parameters were recorded throughout the trial period (18–30 weeks of age). Microbial community was investigated using 16S amplicon sequencing and functional difference using metagenomic sequencing. Phytogen supplemented birds had lower mortality and number of dirty eggs, and their microbial communities showed reduced richness. Although phytogen showed the ability to control the range of poultry pathogens, its action was not restricted to pathogenic taxa, and it involved functional remodelling the intestinal community towards increased cofactor production, heterolactic fermentation and salvage and recycling of metabolites. The phytogen did not alter the antimicrobial resistance profile or the number of antibiotic resistance genes. The study indicates that phytogenic supplementation can mimic the action of antibiotics in altering the gut microbiota and be used as their alternative in industry-scale layer production.

The Urobiome and Its Role in Overactive Bladder

Urine is no longer considered to be sterile. After the existence of the microbiome was revealed through metagenomic analysis using next-generation sequencing, the relationship between characteristics of the microbiome and diseases have been studied and published in various journals. A microbiome exists in the urinary tract and is associated with urinary tract infection, malignancy of the genitourinary tract, and lower urinary tract symptoms. Based on the urine sampling method, sampling site, culture method, and sex, the characteristics of the microbiome vary. Most of the Lactobacillus species are identified mainly in women, and various other species are identified in men. These microorganisms can cause or prevent various diseases. Variations in the microbiome are seen in those with and without disease, and an asymptomatic status does not indicate the absence of microbes. This microbiome has been implicated in a variety of lower urinary tract symptoms and diseases, in particular, overactive bladder. The microbiome differs between patients with urgency and urge urinary incontinence and healthy individuals. There are many aspects of the microbiome yet to be studied in relation to other lower urinary tract symptoms.

Forensic Analysis of Human Microbiome in Skin and Body Fluids Based on Geographic Location

High-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have facilitated the in silico forensic analysis of human microbiome. Specific microbial species or communities obtained from the crime scene provide evidence of human contacts and their body fluids. The microbial community is influenced by geographic, ethnic, lifestyle, and environmental factors such as urbanization. An understanding of the effects of these external stressors on the human microbiome and determination of stable and changing elements are important in selecting appropriate targets for investigation. In this study, the Forensic Microbiome Database (FMD) (http://www.fmd.jcvi.org) containing the microbiome data of various locations in the human body in 35 countries was used. We focused on skin, saliva, vaginal fluid, and stool and found that the microbiome distribution differed according to the body part as well as the geographic location. In the case of skin samples, Staphylococcus species were higher than Corynebacterium species among Asians compared with Americans. Holdemanella and Fusobacterium were specific in the saliva of Koreans and Japanese populations. Lactobacillus was found in the vaginal fluids of individuals in all countries, whereas Serratia and Enterobacter were endemic to Bolivia and Congo, respectively. This study is the first attempt to collate and describe the observed variation in microbiomes from the forensic microbiome database. As additional microbiome databases are reported by studies worldwide, the diversity of the applications may exceed and expand beyond the initial identification of the host.

At the Interface of Life and Death: Post-mortem and Other Applications of Vaginal, Skin, and Salivary Microbiome Analysis in Forensics

Microbial forensics represents a promising tool to strengthen traditional forensic investigative methods and fill related knowledge gaps. Large-scale microbiome studies indicate that microbial fingerprinting can assist forensics in areas such as trace evidence, source tracking, geolocation, and circumstances of death. Nevertheless, the majority of forensic microbiome studies focus on soil and internal organ samples, whereas the microbiome of skin, mouth, and especially vaginal samples that are routinely collected in sexual assault and femicide cases remain underexplored. This review discusses the current and emerging insights into vaginal, skin, and salivary microbiome-modulating factors during life (e.g., lifestyle and health status) and after death (e.g., environmental influences and post-mortem interval) based on next-generation sequencing. We specifically highlight the key aspects of female reproductive tract, skin, and mouth microbiome samples relevant in forensics. To fill the current knowledge gaps, future research should focus on the degree to which the post-mortem succession rate and profiles of vaginal, skin, and saliva microbiota are sensitive to abiotic and biotic factors, presence or absence of oxygen and other gases, and the nutrient richness of the environment. Application of this microbiome-related knowledge could provide valuable complementary data to strengthen forensic cases, for example, to shed light on the circumstances surrounding death with (post-mortem) microbial fingerprinting. Overall, this review synthesizes the present knowledge and aims to provide a framework to adequately comprehend the hurdles and potential application of vaginal, skin, and salivary post-mortem microbiomes in forensic investigations.