Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) characterisation of sildenafil based products seized on the Italian illegal market

Addressing forensic science challenges with nuclear analytical techniques - A review

We review the application of Nuclear Analytical Techniques (NATs) to forensic problems for the first time. NATs include neutron activation analysis (NAA), carried out in nuclear reactors for elemental analysis; accelerator-based techniques, mainly Ion Beam Analysis (IBA) for elemental and molecular analysis; and Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) for dating of traces of forensic interest by "radiocarbon dating" and other related methods. Applications include analysis of drugs of abuse, food fraud, counterfeit medicine, gunshot residue, glass fragments, forgery of art objects and documents, and human material. In some applications only the NATs are able to provide relevant information for forensic purposes. This review not only includes a wide collection of forensic applications, but also illustrates the wide availability worldwide of NATs, opening up opportunities for an increased use of NATs in routine forensic casework.

State-of-the-Art Analytical Approaches for Illicit Drug Profiling in Forensic Investigations

In forensic chemistry, when investigating seized illicit drugs, the profiling or chemical fingerprinting of drugs is considered fundamental. This involves the identification, quantitation and categorization of drug samples into groups, providing investigative leads such as a common or different origin of seized samples. Further goals of drug profiling include the elucidation of synthetic pathways, identification of adulterants and impurities, as well as identification of a drug's geographic origin, specifically for plant-derived exhibits. The aim of this state-of-art-review is to present the traditional and advanced analytical approaches commonly followed by forensic chemists worldwide for illicit drug profiling. We discussed numerous methodologies for the physical and chemical profiling of organic and inorganic impurities found in illicit drug. Applications of powerful spectroscopic and chromatographic tools for illicit drug profiling including isotope-Ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IRMS), ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were discussed. Altogether, the techniques covered in this paper to profile seized illicit drugs could aid forensic chemists in selecting and applying a suitable method to extract valuable profiling data.

An overview on performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs) confiscated in Italy in the period 2017-2019

CONTEXT

The illegal market of counterfeit and falsified medicines and supplements containing unlabeled pharmaceuticals is expanding worldwide. They are usually referred to by the term "performance and image enhancing drugs" (PIEDs) and are mainly steroids, stimulants, hormones, and drugs for erectile dysfunction. PIEDs are easily accessible through the online or black markets. We analyzed over 400 such medicines confiscated in Italy in the period 2017-2019, to determine their composition.

METHODS

Confiscated products were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry, in order to ascertain their composition and to evaluate the correspondence between what was declared on the label and the actual content, or to identify unknown products.

RESULTS

The most commonly found substance was anabolic steroids, found in 64% of products, with 11% containing hormone modulators, 6% stimulants, 6% sexual enhancers (mainly sildenafil) and other drugs, including thyroid hormones, melanin stimulators, and vitamins. These substances were often in mixtures. The products were often mislabeled, containing contaminants in addition to the drug declared, or consisted of a drug completely different from the one reported on the label. Fifteen percent of products had a qualitative composition completely different from that declared, while 10% of products showed cross-contamination with other drugs, mainly testosterone esters, probably due to the presence of residues of other drugs in the production line. In addition, 11% of products were not labeled, so their purported composition was unknown.

DISCUSSION

PIEDs pose a threat to public health. The main risks are related to the intrinsic toxicity of the substances found, especially when taken without a therapeutic indication. Another issue is related to the mislabeling of the fake medicines, and the poor-quality standard of counterfeit product preparation, with additional risks of the presence of other toxic ingredients or microbial contamination.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of counterfeit products is a public health concern, as it constitutes a high risk for consumer health. It is mainly caused by the uncontrolled use of steroids, stimulants, sexual enhancers, and other medicaments, without medical indication or supervision, with variable and unknown compositions and doses, as well as other contaminants as a result of the absence of good manufacturing practices.