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Behyar MB, Bahavarnia F, Nilghaz A, Hasanzadeh M, Shadjou N. Opto-sensing of sotalol using parafilm and poly(methyl methacrylate) micro-plates decorated by silver nanoparticles: state-of-the-art for one-drop pharmaceutical analysis. RSC Adv 2025; 15:12321-12330. [PMID: 40248225 PMCID: PMC12004068 DOI: 10.1039/d5ra01716e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2025] [Accepted: 04/13/2025] [Indexed: 04/19/2025] Open
Abstract
Sotalol is an antiarrhythmic drug with a narrow therapeutic index and potential adverse effects, including hypotension and heart block, requiring continuous and precise blood-level monitoring. In this study, an innovative optical sensor was developed using silver nanoparticle (AgNP)-functionalized parafilm (PF)- and poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) for the trace-level detection of sotalol in human blood plasma. The detection was performed using CMYK-based colorimetric digital image analysis via the Color Picker software app, achieving a low limit of quantification of 1 μM and a linear range of 0.001 to 20 mM. The selectivity of the sensor was also validated in the presence of potentially interfering cardiovascular drugs. Nanoparticle characterization revealed a shift in zeta potential (Z p) from -14.5 to -6.16 mV, confirming a strong interaction between sotalol and AgNPs, as the optical probe. The sensor offers an innovative, cost-effective, portable, and rapid (5-min analysis time) approach for detecting sotalol in blood plasma. This sensor holds significant potential for point-of-care diagnostics and on-site drug monitoring, providing a reliable alternative to conventional, lab-dependent analytical methods for therapeutic drug monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milad Baghal Behyar
- Nutrition Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
| | - Farnaz Bahavarnia
- Asian Nano Ink Science Based Company, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
| | - Azadeh Nilghaz
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University Parkville VIC 3052 Australia
| | - Mohammad Hasanzadeh
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
| | - Nasrin Shadjou
- Department of Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Chemistry, Urmia University Urmia Iran
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2
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Rafiq K, Sadia I, Abid MZ, Waleed MZ, Rauf A, Hussain E. Scientific Insights into the Quantum Dots (QDs)-Based Electrochemical Sensors for State-of-the-Art Applications. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2024; 10:7268-7313. [PMID: 39499739 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.4c01256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2024]
Abstract
Size-dependent optical and electronic properties are unique characteristics of quantum dots (QDs). A significant advantage is the quantum confinement effect that allows their precise tuning to achieve required characteristics and behavior for the targeted applications. Regarding the aforementioned factors, QDs-based sensors have exhibited dramatic potential for the diverse and advanced applications. For example, QDs-based devices have been potentially utilized for bioimaging, drug delivery, cancer therapy, and environmental remediation. In recent years, use of QDs-based electrochemical sensors have been further extended in other areas like gas sensing, metal ion detection, monitoring of organic pollutants, and detection of radioactive isotopes. Objective of this study is to rationalize the QDs-based electrochemical sensors for state-of-the-art applications. This review article comprehensively illustrates the importance of aforementioned devices along with sources from which QDs devices have been formulated and fabricated. Other distinct features of QDs devices are associated with their extremely high active surfaces, inherent ability of reproducibility, sensitivity, and selectivity for the targeted analyte detection. In this review, major categories of QD materials along with justification of their key roles in electrochemical devices have been demonstrated and discussed. All categories have been evaluated with special emphasis on the advantages and drawbacks/challenges associated with QD materials. However, in the interests of readers and researchers, recent improvements also have been included and discussed. On the evaluation, it has been concluded that despite significant challenges, QDs-based electrochemical sensors exhibit excellent performances for state-of-the-art and targeted applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khezina Rafiq
- Institute of Chemistry, Inorganic Materials Laboratory 52S, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
| | - Iqra Sadia
- Institute of Chemistry, Inorganic Materials Laboratory 52S, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Zeeshan Abid
- Institute of Chemistry, Inorganic Materials Laboratory 52S, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Zaryab Waleed
- Institute of Chemistry, Inorganic Materials Laboratory 52S, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Rauf
- Institute of Chemistry, Inorganic Materials Laboratory 52S, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
| | - Ejaz Hussain
- Institute of Chemistry, Inorganic Materials Laboratory 52S, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
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3
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Syafira RS, Devi MJ, Gaffar S, Irkham, Kurnia I, Arnafia W, Einaga Y, Syakir N, Noviyanti AR, Hartati YW. Hydroxyapatite-Gold Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode for Selective SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Immunosensor. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2024; 7:950-960. [PMID: 38303668 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c00953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), or coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is still spreading worldwide; therefore, the need for rapid and accurate detection methods remains relevant to maintain the spread of this infectious disease. Electrochemical immunosensors are an alternative method for the rapid detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Herein, we report the development of a screen-printed carbon electrode immunosensor using a hydroxyapatite-gold nanocomposite (SPCE/HA-Au) directly spray-coated with the immobilization receptor binding domain (RBD) Spike to increase the conductivity and surface electrode area. The HA-Au composite synthesis was optimized using the Box-Behnken method, and the resulting composite was characterized by UV-vis spectrophotometry, TEM-EDX, and XRD analysis. The specific interaction of RBD Spike with immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies was evaluated by differential pulse voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy methods in a [Fe(CN)6]4-/3- solution redox system. The IgG was detected with a detection limit of 0.0561 pg mL-1, and the immunosensor had selectivity and stability of 103-122% and was stable until week 7 with the influence of storage conditions. Also, the immunosensor was tested using real samples from human serum, where the results were confirmed using the chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA) method and showed satisfactory results. Therefore, the developed electrochemical immunosensor can rapidly and accurately detect SARS-CoV-2 antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ratu Shifa Syafira
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Melania Janisha Devi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Shabarni Gaffar
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Irkham
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Irwan Kurnia
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Wyanda Arnafia
- Department of Animal Infectious Diseases and Veterinary Public Health, IPB University, Jl. Raya Dramaga, Bogor, West Java 16680, Indonesia
| | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama, 223-8522, Japan
| | - Norman Syakir
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Atiek Rostika Noviyanti
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
| | - Yeni Wahyuni Hartati
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Padjadjaran University, Jl. Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java 45363, Indonesia
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4
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Silva RM, da Silva AD, Camargo JR, de Castro BS, Meireles LM, Silva PS, Janegitz BC, Silva TA. Carbon Nanomaterials-Based Screen-Printed Electrodes for Sensing Applications. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:bios13040453. [PMID: 37185528 PMCID: PMC10136782 DOI: 10.3390/bios13040453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical sensors consisting of screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) are recurrent devices in the recent literature for applications in different fields of interest and contribute to the expanding electroanalytical chemistry field. This is due to inherent characteristics that can be better (or only) achieved with the use of SPEs, including miniaturization, cost reduction, lower sample consumption, compatibility with portable equipment, and disposability. SPEs are also quite versatile; they can be manufactured using different formulations of conductive inks and substrates, and are of varied designs. Naturally, the analytical performance of SPEs is directly affected by the quality of the material used for printing and modifying the electrodes. In this sense, the most varied carbon nanomaterials have been explored for the preparation and modification of SPEs, providing devices with an enhanced electrochemical response and greater sensitivity, in addition to functionalized surfaces that can immobilize biological agents for the manufacture of biosensors. Considering the relevance and timeliness of the topic, this review aimed to provide an overview of the current scenario of the use of carbonaceous nanomaterials in the context of making electrochemical SPE sensors, from which different approaches will be presented, exploring materials traditionally investigated in electrochemistry, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon black, and those more recently investigated for this (carbon quantum dots, graphitic carbon nitride, and biochar). Perspectives on the use and expansion of these devices are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Matias Silva
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Jéssica Rocha Camargo
- Laboratory of Sensors, Nanomedicine, and Nanostructured Materials, Federal University of São Carlos, Araras 13600-970, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Laís Muniz Meireles
- Federal Center for Technological Education of Minas Gerais, Timóteo 35180-008, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Bruno Campos Janegitz
- Laboratory of Sensors, Nanomedicine, and Nanostructured Materials, Federal University of São Carlos, Araras 13600-970, SP, Brazil
| | - Tiago Almeida Silva
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
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5
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Sarvestani MRJ, Madrakian T, Afkhami A. Developed electrochemical sensors for the determination of beta-blockers: A comprehensive review. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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6
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Graphene Quantum Dots-Based Nanocomposites Applied in Electrochemical Sensors: A Recent Survey. ELECTROCHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/electrochem2030032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have been widely investigated in recent years due to their outstanding physicochemical properties. Their remarkable characteristics allied to their capability of being easily synthesized and combined with other materials have allowed their use as electrochemical sensing platforms. In this work, we survey recent applications of GQDs-based nanocomposites in electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Firstly, the main characteristics and synthesis methods of GQDs are addressed. Next, the strategies generally used to obtain the GQDs nanocomposites are discussed. Emphasis is given on the applications of GQDs combined with distinct 0D, 1D, 2D nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), ionic liquids, as well as other types of materials, in varied electrochemical sensors and biosensors for detecting analytes of environmental, medical, and agricultural interest. We also discuss the current trends and challenges towards real applications of GQDs in electrochemical sensors.
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7
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Karadurmus L, Ozcelikay G, Vural S, Ozkan SA. An Overview on Quantum Dot-based Nanocomposites for Electrochemical Sensing on Pharmaceutical Assay. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH : IJPR 2021; 20:187-203. [PMID: 34903981 PMCID: PMC8653673 DOI: 10.22037/ijpr.2021.115279.15291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Quantum dots (QDs) are one of the first nanotechnological materials to be integrated with sensor technologies and have been widely anticipated to eventually find application chances in several commercial pharmaceutical and clinical products. They are one of the most important developments in the rapidly growing world of material science technology. The excellent properties of QDs may allow the design of simple, precise, and inexpensive electrochemical methods for the detection of pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical techniques offer accuracy, high sensitivity, low cost, simplicity, ease of preparation of the samples in a very short time, and speed of analysis. The most commonly used voltammetric techniques are differential pulse voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, and stripping voltammetry. The purpose of this review is to show and communicate the advantages and uses of QD applications used in drug analysis. Besides, the present application methods of QDs to the pharmaceutical analysis and their related parameters were summarized between 2012 and 2021 years and summarized as a table.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leyla Karadurmus
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Adıyaman University, Adıyaman, Turkey.
| | - Goksu Ozcelikay
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Sena Vural
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Sibel A. Ozkan
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.
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8
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Hassanvand Z, Jalali F, Nazari M, Parnianchi F, Santoro C. Carbon Nanodots in Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors: A Review. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202001229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Maryam Nazari
- Faculty of Chemistry Razi University Kermanshah Iran
| | | | - Carlo Santoro
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science The University of Manchester The Mill Sackville Street Manchester M13PAL UK
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9
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Panhwar S, Ilhan H, Hassan SS, Zengin A, Boyacı IH, Tamer U. Dual Responsive Disposable Electrode for the Enumeration of
Escherichia coli
in Whole Blood. ELECTROANAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202060185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sallahuddin Panhwar
- Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy Gazi University, Etiler 06330 Ankara Turkey
- U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Water (US-PCAS-W) Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76062 Sindh Pakistan
| | - Hasan Ilhan
- Department of Chemistry Faculty of Science Ordu University, Altinordu 52200 Ordu Turkey
| | - Syeda Sara Hassan
- U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Water (US-PCAS-W) Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76062 Sindh Pakistan
| | - Adem Zengin
- Van Yüzüncü Yil University Department of Chemical Engineering 65090 Tuşba/Van Turkey
| | - Ismail Hakkı Boyacı
- Department of Food Engineering Faculty of Engineering Hacettepe University, Beytepe 06800 Ankara Turkey
| | - Ugur Tamer
- Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy Gazi University, Etiler 06330 Ankara Turkey
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10
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Yıldırım S, Erkmen C, Uslu B. Novel Trends in Analytical Methods for β-Blockers: An Overview of Applications in the Last Decade. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2020; 52:131-169. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2020.1791043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sercan Yıldırım
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey
| | - Cem Erkmen
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Bengi Uslu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
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11
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Carbonaceous Nanomaterials Employed in the Development of Electrochemical Sensors Based on Screen-Printing Technique—A Review. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10060680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper aims to revise research on carbonaceous nanomaterials used in developing sensors. In general, nanomaterials are known to be useful in developing high-performance sensors due to their unique physical and chemical properties. Thus, descriptions were made for various structural features, properties, and manner of functionalization of carbon-based nanomaterials used in electrochemical sensors. Of the commonly used technologies in manufacturing electrochemical sensors, the screen-printing technique was described, highlighting the advantages of this type of device. In addition, an analysis was performed in point of the various applications of carbon-based nanomaterial sensors to detect analytes of interest in different sample types.
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12
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Pérez-Fernández B, Costa-García A, Muñiz ADLE. Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors for Pesticides Detection Using Screen-Printed Electrodes. BIOSENSORS 2020; 10:E32. [PMID: 32252430 PMCID: PMC7236603 DOI: 10.3390/bios10040032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Pesticides are among the most important contaminants in food, leading to important global health problems. While conventional techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) have traditionally been utilized for the detection of such food contaminants, they are relatively expensive, time-consuming and labor intensive, limiting their use for point-of-care (POC) applications. Electrochemical (bio)sensors are emerging devices meeting such expectations, since they represent reliable, simple, cheap, portable, selective and easy to use analytical tools that can be used outside the laboratories by non-specialized personnel. Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) stand out from the variety of transducers used in electrochemical (bio)sensing because of their small size, high integration, low cost and ability to measure in few microliters of sample. In this context, in this review article, we summarize and discuss about the use of SPEs as analytical tools in the development of (bio)sensors for pesticides of interest for food control. Finally, aspects related to the analytical performance of the developed (bio)sensors together with prospects for future improvements are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alfredo de la Escosura- Muñiz
- NanoBioAnalysis Group-Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, University of Oviedo, Julián Clavería 8, 33006 Oviedo, Spain
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Eksin E, Senturk H, Zor E, Bingol H, Erdem A. Carbon quantum dot modified electrodes developed for electrochemical monitoring of Daunorubicin-DNA interaction. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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14
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Mansuriya BD, Altintas Z. Applications of Graphene Quantum Dots in Biomedical Sensors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E1072. [PMID: 32079119 PMCID: PMC7070974 DOI: 10.3390/s20041072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Due to the proliferative cancer rates, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, autoimmune diseases and a plethora of infections across the globe, it is essential to introduce strategies that can rapidly and specifically detect the ultralow concentrations of relevant biomarkers, pathogens, toxins and pharmaceuticals in biological matrices. Considering these pathophysiologies, various research works have become necessary to fabricate biosensors for their early diagnosis and treatment, using nanomaterials like quantum dots (QDs). These nanomaterials effectively ameliorate the sensor performance with respect to their reproducibility, selectivity as well as sensitivity. In particular, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), which are ideally graphene fragments of nanometer size, constitute discrete features such as acting as attractive fluorophores and excellent electro-catalysts owing to their photo-stability, water-solubility, biocompatibility, non-toxicity and lucrativeness that make them favorable candidates for a wide range of novel biomedical applications. Herein, we reviewed about 300 biomedical studies reported over the last five years which entail the state of art as well as some pioneering ideas with respect to the prominent role of GQDs, especially in the development of optical, electrochemical and photoelectrochemical biosensors. Additionally, we outline the ideal properties of GQDs, their eclectic methods of synthesis, and the general principle behind several biosensing techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zeynep Altintas
- Technical University of Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany;
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