Perceived 'optimal efficiency': theorization and conceptualization for development and implementation

Empirical validation of the psychological concept of a perceived feeling of 'energy': Advancement into the study of positive psychology

The paradigm of positive psychology, significant in nature, helps to explain the proactivity and motivation of human agency, such as a secondary school student's state of autonomy, confidence, and personal resolve to strive for optimal learning and/or non-learning experiences. Our recent research development, in tandem with other scholars' inquiries, has focused on one aspect of positive psychology-namely, a person's achievement of 'optimal best', which reflects the maximization of his/her state of functioning (e.g., cognitive functioning). Capitalizing on our previous research, we develop a psychological concept that we term as a 'perceived feeling of energy'. A perceived feeling of energy (e.g., a perceived feeling of liveliness) is proposed to act as a 'motivational engine', or as a central driver, which then could predict and enhance a person's achievement of optimal best. Six hundred and twenty-seven university students (N = 438 women, 189 men) responded to a suite of self-report questionnaires. Structural equation modelling (SEM) techniques were used to test a conceptual model, where we focused on the antecedent (i.e., the direct impact of self-efficacy on a perceived feeling of energy) and consequence of a perceived feeling energy (i.e., the impact of a perceived feeling of energy on personal resolve, and the sustaining of optimal best). Analysis of results showed support for our original hypothesized model-for example: self-efficacy as an antecedent of energy and the central role of the energy as a predictor and potential mediator of future outcomes.

Interrelationships Between Psychosocial, Motivational, and Psychological Processes for Effective Learning: A Structural Equation Modeling Study

We tested a theoretical-conceptual model that introduced our recently developed psychological concept, termed as psychological processes, which is defined as "a person's continuing frame of mind to focus on disposition toward strong resolute, structured thoughts and organization, and aspiration to strive for educational success." This proposition is innovative as it considers the notion that a person's mindset is malleable and, importantly, subjects to social experiences derived from a situated social context. Moreover, from our definition, we contend that psychological processes, as a distinct construct, is "latent," or underlying, with three comparable psychological attributes: personal resolve, effective functioning, and personal striving. Our conceptualization, acknowledging the importance of social contexts and individualized experience and personal belief, proposed that perceived social experiences (i.e., positive versus negative), as a source of information, would shape a student's psychological processes, his/her state of motivation, and engagement in different types of adaptive outcomes. Moreover, from our point of view, psychological processes would act as a predictor as well as a potential mediator of motivation and engagement in different types of adaptive outcomes. In a similar vein, from the positive effect of psychological processes, motivation could act as a predictor as well as a mediator of adaptive outcomes. Structural equation modeling, from Taiwanese university students' (N = 739) responses to various Likert-scale measures, showed support for our original a priori model - for example, the positive effects of perceived social experiences on psychological processes (β = 0.81, p < 0.001) motivation (β = 0.61, p < 0.001), and adaptive outcomes (β = 0.36, p < 0.01), and the positive effect of psychological processes on motivation (β = 0.31, p < 0.01). Interestingly, we also found some interesting findings with regard to the effects of measured indicators - for example, the positive effect of personal resolve, as a measured indicator, on adaptive outcomes (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), and the effect of self-efficacy, as a measured indicator, on academic liking experience, also a measured indicator (β = 0.12, p < 0.01). Overall, the results established have a wide range of implications for consideration - for example, the development of an educational program and/or instructional design that could promote and foster positive learning experiences.

A Perceived Zone of Certainty and Uncertainty: Propositions for Research Development

Possessing expert schemas is a positive feat that may yield different types of adaptive outcomes (e.g., informing procedural understanding that may result in a student skipping a few of the solution steps involved). Limited schemas, in contrast, may deter progress of a novice learner, limiting his/her capability to flourish. Taken as a whole, it may be concluded that expert schemas are more advantageous than novice schemas, differentiating learners in terms of expert and novice. Having said this, however, more recently, researchers have argued that possessing expert schemas could serve as deterrence. Recently, researchers have acknowledged a theoretical concept known as cognitive entrenchment, which is defined as a high level of stability in domain schemas. This description interestingly suggests that "entrenchment" or "situated fixation" of a course of action (e.g., a subject matter) could hinder the progress and learning experience of a person, namely-his/her inability and/or unwillingness to adapt to a new context, and/or his/her inflexibility and insistence to stay on course without any intent to change. One example of cognitive entrenchment is observed in professional football, wherein it has been argued that some football coaches are cognitively entrenched within their expert schemas, resulting in their demised game plans and strategic acumen. We advance the study of cognitive entrenchment by proposing an alternative viewpoint, which we term as the "perceived zone of certainty and uncertainty." This proposition counters the perspective of cognitive entrenchment by arguing that it is cognitive appraisal, judgment, mental resolute, and determination of a person in cognitive certainty of his/her success or failure, or the cognitive uncertainty of success or failure, that would explain the notion of inflexibility and/or unwillingness to adapt, and/or insistence to stay on course without any attempt to deviate. Moreover, we rationalize that certainty of success or failure would closely associate with a feeling of comfort, whereas uncertainty would associate with his/her feeling discomfort. In this analysis, we strongly believe that willingness to change and adapt, reluctance and insistence to remain on course, and/or inclination to embrace flexibility may not necessarily relate to the concept of cognitive entrenchment; rather, inflexibility and/or reluctance to change for the purpose of adaptation has more to do with the desire of a person to seek a state of comfort. Finally, our conceptual analysis of cognitive entrenchment also considers an interesting theoretical concept, which we termed as "perceived optimal efficiency." Perceived optimal efficiency, similar to cognitive relevance theory, is concerned with the relationship between minimum investment of time, effort, cognitive resources, etc., and an optimal best outcome. The issue for discussion, from our point of view, is related to the extent to which the certainty of success or failure would associate with perceived optimal efficiency.

A Case for Cognitive Entrenchment: To Achieve Optimal Best, Taking Into Account the Importance of Perceived Optimal Efficiency and Cognitive Load Imposition

One interesting observation that we may all concur with is that many experts, or those who are extremely knowledgeable and well-versed in their respective domains of functioning, become "mediocre" and lose their "touch of invincibility" over time. For example, in the world of professional football, it has been argued that an elite football coach would lose his/her air of invincibility and demise after 10-15 years at the top. Why is this the case? There are different reasons and contrasting viewpoints that have been offered to account for this observed demise. One notable concept, recently introduced to explain this decline, is known as cognitive entrenchment, which is concerned with a high level of stability in one's domain schemas (Dane, 2010). This entrenchment or "situated fixation," from our proposition, may act to deter the flexibility and/or willingness of a person to adapt to a new context or situation. Some writers, on this basis, have argued that cognitive entrenchment would help explain the demise of some experts and/or why some students have difficulties adapting to new situations. An initial inspection would seem to indicate that cognitive entrenchment is detrimental, potentially imparting evidence of inflexibility, difficulty, and/or the unwillingness of a person to adapt to new contexts (Dane, 2010). This premise importantly connotes that expertise may constrain a person from being flexible, innovative, and/or creative to ongoing changes. In this analysis, an expert may experience a cognitive state of entrenchment, facilitated in this case by his/her own experience, knowledge, and/or theoretical understanding of a subject matter. Having said this, however, it is also a plausibility that cognitive entrenchment in itself espouses some form of positivity, giving rise to improvement and/or achievement of different types of adaptive outcomes. Drawing from our existing research development, we propose in this conceptual analysis article that personal "entrenchment" to a particular context (e.g., the situated fixation of a football coach to a particular training methodology) may closely relate to three major elements: self-cognizance of cognitive load imposition, a need for efficiency, and the quest for stability and comfort. As we explore later, there is credence to accept the "positivity" of cognitive entrenchment-that by nature, for example, a person would purposively choose the status quo in order to minimize cognitive load imposition, optimize efficiency, and/or to achieve minimum disruption and a high level of comfort, which could then "optimize" his/her learning experiences. We strongly believe that our propositions, which consider eight in this article, are of significance and may, importantly, provide grounding for further research development into the validity of cognitive entrenchment.