Long-term mortality rate for cardiovascular disease in 656 chronic myeloid leukaemia patients treated with second- and third-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Successful treatment of a chronic myeloid leukemia patient with extreme thrombocytosis by a combination of imatinib and interferon‑α: A case report

Chronic myeloid leukemia with extreme thrombocytosis (CML-T), defined by a platelet count >1,000x109/l is a rare leukemia subtype. The present case report described a 66-year-old female CML-T patient presenting with a platelet count of 3,798x109/l, but a consistently normal spleen size. Following treatment with imatinib combined with interferon-α, the patient achieved hematological remission within 2 months, with a platelet count reduction to 311x109/l and complete cytogenetic remission after 10 months. The patient experienced myocardial infarction and liver injury during treatment, which was managed with supportive care. The present case suggested that imatinib combined with interferon-α may be a safe and effective treatment option for patients with CML-T and extreme thrombocytosis and suboptimal response to imatinib monotherapy.

CML in the very elderly: the impact of comorbidities and TKI selection in a real-life multicenter study

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have greatly improved chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) treatments, with survival rates close to the general population. Yet, for the very elderly, robust data remains limited. This study focused on assessing comorbidities, treatment approaches, responses, and survival for elderly CML patients. Our study was conducted on 123 elderly (≥ 75 years) CML patients across four centers in Israel and Moffitt Cancer Center, USA. The median age at diagnosis was 79.1 years, with 44.7% being octogenarians. Comorbidities were very common; cardiovascular risk factors (60%), cardiovascular diseases (42%), with a median age-adjusted Charlson Comorbidity Index (aaCCI) of 5. Imatinib was the leading first-line therapy (69%), while the use of second-generation TKIs increased post-2010. Most patients achieved a major molecular response (MMR, 66.7%), and half achieved a deep molecular response (DMR, 50.4%). Over half (52.8%) of patients moved to second-line, and nearly a quarter (23.5%) to third-line treatments, primarily due to intolerance. Overall survival (OS) was notably longer in patients with an aaCCI score below 5, and in patients who attained DMR. Contrary to expectations, the Israeli cohort showed a shorter actual life expectancy than projected, suggesting a larger impact of CML on elderly survival. In summary, imatinib remains the main initial treatment, but second-generation TKIs are on the rise among elderly CML patients. Outcomes in elderly CML patients depend on comorbidities, TKI type, response, and age, underscoring the need for personalized therapy and additional research on TKI effectiveness and safety.

Cardiovascular Adverse Events of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia: Clinical Relevance, Impact on Outcome, Preventive Measures and Treatment Strategies

OPINION STATEMENT

The introduction of TKIs into the therapeutic armamentarium of CML has changed the disease paradigm, increasing long-term survival from 20% to over 80%, with a life expectancy now approaching that of the general population. Although highly effective, TKIs also have a toxicity profile that is often mild to moderate, but sometimes severe, with multiple kinases involved in the development of adverse events (AEs). Among others, cardiovascular AEs observed in TKI-treated CML patients may represent a significant cause of morbidity and mortality, and their pathogenesis is still only partially understood. In view of the recent introduction into daily clinical practice of new TKIs, namely the STAMP inhibitor asciminib, with a distinct safety profile, hematologists now more than ever have the opportunity to select the most suitable TKI for each patient, an aspect that will be fundamental in terms of personalized preventive and therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, physicians should be aware of the feasibility of TKI dose modifications at all stages of the patients' treatment journey, both at diagnosis for frail or elderly subjects or with multiple comorbidities, and during follow-up for those patients who experience toxicity, as well as to prevent it, with the main objective of reducing side effects while maintaining the response. Consequently, preserving the cardiovascular health of CML patients will likely be a more urgent topic in the near future, with specific measures aimed at controlling cardiovascular risk factors through a multidisciplinary approach involving a panel of healthcare professionals together with the hematologist.

A practical guide to managing cardiopulmonary toxicities of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in chronic myeloid leukemia

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have revolutionized the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) but their use was associated with a range of serious cardiopulmonary toxicities including vascular adverse events, QT prolongation, heart failure, pleural effusion, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Dedicated clinical management guidelines for TKI-induced toxicities are not available. This review aims to discuss TKI-associated cardiopulmonary toxicities and proposes a practical guide for their management.

Cardiotoxicity of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Philadelphia-Positive Leukemia Patients

In the past twenty years, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have substantially changed the therapeutic landscape and the clinical outcome of several cancers, including Philadelphia-chromosome positive chronic myeloid leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic eosinophilic syndromes, gastrointestinal stromal tumors, and others. Despite the obvious advantages offered in terms of efficacy and the overall safety profile, this new class of agents presents novel side effects, sometimes different from those induced by conventional chemotherapy. Among others, the potential cardiac toxicity, characterized by possible arrhythmias and the highest rates of cardiac ischemic disease and heart failure, were predominantly investigated. In this article, the authors review the most significant evidence in this regard, highlighting the overall benefit of TKI usage and the need for careful monitoring, especially in elderly patients.

Á. Five-year cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic myeloid leukemia treated with imatinib, dasatinib, or nilotinib: A cohort study using data from a large multinational collaborative network

Background

Breakpoint cluster region-Abelson gene (BCR-ABL) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have revolutionized the treatment of patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). However, concern has arisen about the cardiac safety profile of these drugs.

Objectives

This study aims to compare long-term risks of adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events (ACE), heart failure or left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) < 50%, and venous thromboembolic events (VTE) in patients with CML treated with BCR-ABL TKIs, using data from a large multinational network.

Methods

Patients aged ≥ 18 years with CML treated with imatinib, dasatinib, or nilotinib without prior cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease were included. We used propensity score matching to balance the cohorts. The 5-year cumulative incidences and hazard ratios were calculated.

Results

We identified 3,722 patients with CML under treatment with imatinib (n = 1,906), dasatinib (n = 1,269), and nilotinib (n = 547). Patients with imatinib compared to dasatinib showed a higher hazard ratio (HR) for ACE (HR 2,13, 95% CI 1.15-3.94, p = 0.016). Patients with imatinib presented a lower HR than nilotinib for ACE (HR 0.50, 95% CI 0.30-0.83, p = 0.0074). In relation to heart failure or LVEF < 50%, patients with imatinib had a higher HR than dasatinib (HR 9.41, 95% CI 1.22-72.17, p = 0.03), but no significant difference was observed between imatinib and nilotinib (HR 0.48, 95% CI 0.215-1.01, p = 0.064).

Conclusion

In this retrospective study with a large number of patients with CML, those treated with nilotinib had a higher 5-year ratio of ACE, while patients with dasatinib showed a lower ratio than patients with imatinib. The ratio of heart failure was higher in patients with imatinib than in patients with dasatinib, but not when compared to nilotinib.

Sex-related differential susceptibility to ponatinib cardiotoxicity and differential modulation of the Notch1 signalling pathway in a murine model

Ponatinib (PON), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor approved in chronic myeloid leukaemia, has proven cardiovascular toxicity. We assessed mechanisms of sex‐related PON‐induced cardiotoxicity and identified rescue strategies in a murine model. PON+scrambled siRNA‐treated male mice had a higher number of TUNEL‐positive cells (%TdT+6.12 ± 0.17), higher percentage of SA‐β‐gal‐positive senescent cardiac area (%SA‐β‐gal 1.41 ± 0.59) and a lower reactivity degree (RD) for the survival marker Bmi1 [Abs (OD) 5000 ± 703] compared to female (%TdT+3.75 ± 0.35; %SA‐β‐gal 0.77 ± 0.02; Bmi1 [Abs (OD) 8567 ± 2173]. Proteomics analysis of cardiac tissue showed downstream activation of cell death in PON+siRNA scrambled compared to vehicle or PON+siRNA‐Notch1‐treated male mice. Upstream analysis showed beta‐oestradiol activation, and downstream analysis showed activation of cell survival and inhibition of cell death in PON+scrambled siRNA compared to vehicle or PON+siRNA‐Notch1‐treated female mice. PON+scrambled siRNA‐treated mice also had a downregulation of cardiac actin—more marked in males—and vessel density—more marked in females. Female hearts showed greater cardiac fibrosis than their male counterparts at baseline, with no significant change after PON treatment. PON+siRNA‐scrambled mice had less fibrosis than vehicle or PON+siRNA‐Notch1‐treated mice. The left ventricular systolic dysfunction showed by PON+scrambled siRNA‐treated mice (male %EF 28 ± 9; female %EF 36 ± 7) was reversed in both PON+siRNA‐Notch1‐treated male (%EF 53 ± 9) and female mice (%EF 52 ± 8). We report sex‐related differential susceptibility and Notch1 modulation in PON‐induced cardiotoxicity. This can help to identify biomarkers and potential mechanisms underlying sex‐related differences in PON‐induced cardiotoxicity.

Predictive value of clinical examination parameters for cardiovascular adverse events during treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia with tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) requires management of long-term use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Although cardiovascular adverse events (CAEs) caused by off-target effects of TKIs can be life-threatening, the optimal method of monitoring for CAEs has not been established. Here, we comprehensively evaluated the clinical utility of various cardiovascular parameters, including ankle-brachial blood pressure index (ABI), cardiac ankle vascular index (CAVI), and carotid ultrasonography and electrocardiogram measurements, for monitoring and predicting CAEs in 74 patients with CML receiving TKIs. Based on concordance statistics, the predictive value of established risk factor models was significantly improved by addition of both ABI and CAVI, as follows: model 1 (hypertension, smoking history, and dyslipidemia), 0.680 versus 0.817 (p = 0.041); model 2 (hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus), 0.685 vs. 0.830 (p = 0.047); and model 3 (age, hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes mellitus) 0.737 versus 0.818 (p = 0.044). However, no single cardiovascular parameter independently improved the predictive value of established risk factor models. In conclusion, addition of combined assessment of ABI and CAVI to established risk factors can improve prediction of future CAEs and may enable better clinical management of patients with CML receiving TKIs.

Arterial Hypertension and Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Off-target effects in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are associated with cardiovascular toxicity. Hypertension represents an important cardiovascular complication and, if not appropriately managed, can contribute to developing thrombotic events. Third-generation TKI ponatinib is associated with hypertension development, and its use is more restricted than in the past. Few data are reported for second-generation TKI, nilotinib, dasatinib, and bosutinib. The aim of this article was to evaluate with a systematic review and meta-analysis the real incidence of hypertension in CML patients treated with second- or third-generation TKI.

Methods: The PubMed database, Web of Science, Scopus, and ClinicalTrials.gov were systematically searched for studies published between January 1, 2000, and January 30, 2021; the following terms were entered in the database queries: Cardiovascular, Chronic Myeloid Leukemia, CML, Tyrosine kinases inhibitor, TKI, and Hypertension. The study was carried out according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement.

Results: A pooled analysis of hypertension incidence was 10% for all new-generation TKI, with an even higher prevalence with ponatinib (17%). The comparison with the first-generation imatinib confirmed that nilotinib was associated with a significantly increased risk of hypertension (RR 2; 95% CI; 1.39-2.88, I²=0%, z=3.73, p=0.0002). The greatest risk was found with ponatinib (RR 9.21; 95% CI; 2.86-29.66, z=3.72, p=0.0002).

Conclusion: Hypertension is a common cardiovascular complication in CML patients treated with second- or third-generation TKI.

Anti-aging: senolytics or gerostatics (unconventional view)

Senolytics are basically anti-cancer drugs, repurposed to kill senescent cells selectively. It is even more difficult to selectively kill senescent cells than to kill cancer cells. Based on lessons of cancer therapy, here I suggest how to exploit oncogene-addiction and to combine drugs to achieve selectivity. However, even if selective senolytic combinations will be developed, there is little evidence that a few senescent cells are responsible for organismal aging. I also discuss gerostatics, such as rapamycin and other rapalogs, pan-mTOR inhibitors, dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitors, which inhibit growth- and aging-promoting pathways. Unlike senolytics, gerostatics do not kill cells but slow down cellular geroconversion to senescence. Numerous studies demonstrated that inhibition of the mTOR pathways by any means (genetic, pharmacological and dietary) extends lifespan. Currently, only two studies demonstrated that senolytics (fisetin and a combination Dasatinib plus Quercetin) extend lifespan in mice. These senolytics slightly inhibit the mTOR pathway. Thus, life extension by these senolytics can be explained by their slight rapamycin-like (gerostatic) effects.

Patterns of surveillance for late effects of BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors in survivors of pediatric Philadelphia chromosome positive leukemias

BACKGROUND

Targeted anticancer therapies such as BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have improved outcomes for chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph + ALL). However, little is known about long-term risks of TKIs in children. Exposure-based survivorship guidelines do not include TKIs, thus surveillance practices may be variable.

METHODS

We retrospectively examined surveillance for cardiac and endocrine late effects in children receiving TKIs for Ph + leukemias, diagnosed at < 21 years between 2000 and 2018. Frequency of echocardiogram (ECHO), electrocardiogram (EKG), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and bone age testing were abstracted. Descriptive statistics were stratified by leukemia type.

RESULTS

66 patients (CML n = 44; Ph + ALL n = 22) met inclusion criteria. Among patients with CML, ≥1 evaluation was done: ECHO (50.0%), EKG (48.8%), TSH (43.9%), DXA (2.6%), bone age (7.4%). Among patients with Ph + ALL, ≥1 evaluation was done: ECHO (86.4%), EKG (68.2%), TSH (59.1%), DXA (63.6%), bone age (44.4%). Over a median 6.3 and 5.7 years of observation, respectively, 2% of patients with CML and 57% with Ph + ALL attended a survivorship clinic.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite common exposure to TKIs in survivors of Ph + leukemias, patterns of surveillance for late effects differed in CML and Ph + ALL, with the latter receiving more surveillance likely due to concomitant chemotherapy exposures. Targeted therapies such as TKIs are revolutionizing cancer treatment, but surveillance for late effects and referral to survivorship clinics are variable despite the chronicity of exposure. Evidence based guidelines and longer follow-up are needed.

Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia in Childhood

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is rare in children, requiring extrapolation from treatment of adults. In this review, we explore similarities and differences between adult and pediatric CML with a focus on therapeutic advances and emerging clinical questions.

RECENT FINDINGS

Pediatric CML is effectively treated with long-term targeted therapy using tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Newly diagnosed pediatric patients in chronic phase can now be treated with imatinib, dasatinib, or nilotinib without allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. While treatment-free remission is possible in adults in chronic phase with optimal response to therapy, data are currently insufficient to support stopping TKI in pediatrics outside of a clinical trial. Knowledge gaps remain regarding long-term and late effects of TKIs in pediatric CML. Targeted therapy has markedly improved outcomes for pediatric CML, while raising a number of clinical questions, including the possibility of treatment-free remission and long-term health implications of prolonged TKI exposure at a young age.

Bosutinib in the real-life treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia patients aged >65 years resistant/intolerant to previous tyrosine-kinase inhibitors

To evaluate the role of bosutinib in elderly patients aged >65 years with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), a real-life cohort of 101 chronic-phase CML patients followed up in 23 Italian centers and treated with bosutinib in second or a subsequent line was retrospectively evaluated. Starting dose of bosutinib was 500 mg/day in 25 patients (24.8%), 400 mg/day in 7 patients (6.9%), 300 mg/day in 33 patients (32.7%), 200 mg/day in 34 patients (33.6%), and 100 mg/day in 2 patients (2.0%). Grade 3/4 hematological toxicity occurred in 7/101 patients (6.9%) and grade 3/4 extra-hematological toxicity in 19/101 patients (18.8%). Permanent bosutinib discontinuation due to toxicity was needed in 12 patients (11.9%). Among the 96 patients evaluable for response, 74 (77.0%) achieved a complete cytogenetic response (CCyR), while 64 of these 74 patients in CCyR (66.6% of all 96 evaluable patients) also achieved a molecular response (MR) (major MR [MR 3.0] in 21 [21.8%], deep MR [MR 4.0/4.5] in 43 [44.8%]). The 3-year event-free survival and overall survival of the whole patients' cohort from bosutinib start were 60.9% (CI 95% 49.3-72.5) and 86.4% (CI 95% 77.2-95.6), respectively. Our real-life data show that bosutinib is effective, with a favorable safety profile, also in elderly patients with important comorbidities and resistance and/or intolerance to previous tyrosine-kinase inhibitor treatments. As a consequence, it could play a significant role in current clinical practice for frail patients.

Adverse events associated with nilotinib in chronic myeloid leukemia: mechanisms and management strategies

Introduction: Nilotinib is a second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) targeting BCR/ABL, which is used for the first-line treatment of newly diagnosed chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients and the second-line treatment of most CML patients who are resistant or intolerant to prior therapy that includes imatinib. In addition to common adverse reactions, long-term use of nilotinib shows some toxicities that are different from those of occurring during other BCR/ABL TKI treatments, such as cardiovascular toxicity. It is life-threatening, which would affect not only the choice of initial treatment of CML patients but also the safety of long-term medication.Areas covered: Through searching literature and reports from PubMed and clinical trials, here we review a profile of the adverse effects induced by nilotinib. We also discuss the potential molecular toxicological mechanisms and clinical management, which may provide strategies to prevent or intervene the toxicity associated with nilotinib.Expert opinion: Severe adverse effects associated with nilotinib limit its long-term clinical application. However, the exact mechanisms underlying these toxicities remain unclear. Future research should focus on the developing strategies to reduce the toxicities of nilotinib as well as to avoid similar toxicity in the development of new drugs.

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors in chronic myeloid leukaemia and emergent cardiovascular disease

OBJECTIVES

(1) Describe how the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) in individuals with chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) has evolved; (2) evaluate the risk of MACE associated with the prescription of different CML tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI).

METHODS

A population-based retrospective study including all patients (n=4238) diagnosed with CML in Ontario, Canada between 1986 and 2017 and and age-matched and sex-matched individuals who received healthcare but who did not have CML (controls: n=42 380). The cohort was divided into those entering before 2001 vs from 2001 onwards (when TKIs were introduced). We developed competing risks models to compare time-to-event in CML cases versus controls. We adjusted for baseline comorbidities and present subdistribution HRs and 95% CIs. The relationship between TKI use and MACE was assessed by logistic regression.

RESULTS

Before 2001 and from 2001 on, patients with CML had a higher crude incidence of MACE than patients without CML (19.8 vs 15.3 and 20.3 vs 12.6 per 1000 person-years, respectively). After adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors, patients with CML had a lower subdistribution hazard for MACE (0.59, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.76) before 2001; but from 2001, the adjusted subdistribution HR for MACE (1.27, 95% CI 0.96 to 1.43) was similar to age-matched and sex-matched patients. The incidence (9.3 vs 13.8 per 1000 person-years) and subdistribution hazard for cardiovascular death (0.43, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.52) were lower in patients with CML than controls before 2001. From 2001 on, the incidence (6.3 vs 5.4 per 1000 person-years) and subdistribution hazard for cardiovascular death (0.99, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.18) were similar to age-matched and sex-matched patients without CML with a higher risk of cerebrovascular events (8.6 vs 5.6 per 1000 person-years; 1.35, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.83) and peripheral arterial events (6.9 vs 3.0 per 1000 person-years; 1.66 95% CI, 1.15 to 2.39) in patients with CML than patients without CML. Compared with imatinib, there was no difference in the risk of MACE among those prescribed dasatinib (OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.10) or nilotinib (OR 1.22, 95% CI 0.70 to 1.97).

CONCLUSIONS

In a contemporary CML population, the risk of MACE and cardiovascular death is at least as high as among age-matched and sex-matched patients without CML and may be higher for cerebrovascular and peripheral arterial events. No difference in the risk of MACE between imatinib, dasatinib and nilotinib was observed.

First-generation vs second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors: which is best at diagnosis of chronic phase chronic myeloid leukemia?

In 2020, for the great majority of patients with chronic phase chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), life expectancy is unaffected by a diagnosis of CML because of the unparalleled efficacy of ABL-targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in halting disease progression. A wealth of choices exist for first-line treatment selection, including the first-generation TKI imatinib and the second-generation TKIs bosutinib, dasatinib, and nilotinib. How I select first-line therapy between first-generation and second-generation TKIs is discussed in the context of patient-specific CML disease risk, therapy-related risks, and treatment goals. Although rare, identifying patients with CML at higher risk for disease progression or resistance is important and influences first-line TKI selection. I review the impact of first-generation vs second-generation TKI selection on treatment response and outcomes; the ability to achieve, as well as the timing of, treatment-free remission; and the impact of specific TKIs on longer-term health.

Long-Term Survival, Vascular Occlusive Events and Efficacy Biomarkers of First-Line Treatment of CML: A Meta-Analysis

Large randomized clinical trials and prior meta-analyses indicate that second-generation BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) improve surrogate biomarkers in patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) without providing survival benefits. The objective is to evaluate the long-term efficacy and the occurrence of vascular occlusion with second-generation BCR-ABL TKIs compared with imatinib in patients with CML. Three scientific databases, a clinical registry and abstracts from congress were searched to identify all randomized controlled trials that compared a second-generation BCR-ABL TKI to imatinib in patients with CML. Outcomes extracted were overall survival, major molecular response and complete cytogenetic response, arterial occlusive events and venous thromboembolism. These data were synthesized by odds ratios using a fixed-effect model. This meta-analysis included 4659 participants from 14 trials. Second-generation BCR-ABL TKIs did not improve overall survival compared with imatinib, even at longer follow-up (OR, 1.17 (95% CI, 0.91–1.52)). They improved surrogate biomarkers at 12 and 24 months but increased the risk of arterial occlusion (OR_PETO, 2.81 (95% CI, 2.11–3.73)). The long-term benefits of second-generation TKIs are restricted to surrogate outcomes and do not translate into prolonged survival compared to imatinib. Given the long-term use, frontline therapy should be chosen carefully, with special attention to the patients’ quality of life and cardiovascular risks.

The CoV-2 outbreak: how hematologists could help to fight Covid-19

COVID-19 is a medical emergency, with 20 % of patients presenting with severe clinical manifestations. From the pathogenetic point of view, COVID-19 mimics two other well-known diseases characterized by cytokine storm and hyper-activation of the immune response, with consequent organ damage: acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). Hematologists are confident with these situations requiring a prompt therapeutic approach for switching off the uncontrolled cytokine release; here, we discuss pros and cons of drugs that are already employed in hematology in the light of their possible application in COVID-19. The most promising drugs might be: Ruxolitinib, a JAK1/2 inhibitor, with a rapid and powerful anti-cytokine effect, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), with their good anti-inflammatory properties, and perhaps the anti-Cd26 antibody Begelomab. We also present immunological data from gene expression experiments where TKIs resulted effective anti-inflammatory and pro-immune drugs. A possible combined treatment algorithm for COVID-19 is here proposed.