Echocardiography and strain analysis in Malaysian elite athletes versus young healthy adults

Differences in cardiac adaptation to exercise in male and female athletes assessed by noninvasive techniques: a state-of-the-art review

Athlete's heart is generally regarded as a physiological adaptation to regular training, with specific morphological and functional alterations in the cardiovascular system. Development of the noninvasive imaging techniques over the past several years enabled better assessment of cardiac remodeling in athletes, which may eventually mimic certain pathological conditions with the potential for sudden cardiac death, or disease progression. The current literature provides a compelling overview of the available methods that target the interrelation of prolonged exercise with cardiac structure and function. However, this data stems from scientific studies that included mostly male athletes. Despite the growing participation of females in competitive sport meetings, little is known about the long-term cardiac effects of repetitive training in this population. There are several factors-biochemical, physiological and psychological, that determine sex-dependent cardiac response. Herein, the aim of this review was to compare cardiac adaptation to endurance exercise in male and female athletes with the use of electrocardiographic, echocardiographic, and biochemical examination, to determine the sex-specific phenotypes, and to improve the healthcare providers' awareness of cardiac remodeling in athletes. Finally, we discuss the possible exercise-induced alternations that should arouse suspicion of pathology and be further evaluated.