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Kumar A, Tripathi P, Kumar P, Shekhar R, Pathak R. From Detection to Protection: Antibodies and Their Crucial Role in Diagnosing and Combatting SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:459. [PMID: 38793710 PMCID: PMC11125746 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12050459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Understanding the antibody response to SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is crucial to comprehending disease progression and the significance of vaccine and therapeutic development. The emergence of highly contagious variants poses a significant challenge to humoral immunity, underscoring the necessity of grasping the intricacies of specific antibodies. This review emphasizes the pivotal role of antibodies in shaping immune responses and their implications for diagnosing, preventing, and treating SARS-CoV-2 infection. It delves into the kinetics and characteristics of the antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 and explores current antibody-based diagnostics, discussing their strengths, clinical utility, and limitations. Furthermore, we underscore the therapeutic potential of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies, discussing various antibody-based therapies such as monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, anti-cytokines, convalescent plasma, and hyperimmunoglobulin-based therapies. Moreover, we offer insights into antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, emphasizing the significance of neutralizing antibodies in order to confer immunity to SARS-CoV-2, along with emerging variants of concern (VOCs) and circulating Omicron subvariants. We also highlight challenges in the field, such as the risks of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, and shed light on the challenges associated with the original antigenic sin (OAS) effect and long COVID. Overall, this review intends to provide valuable insights, which are crucial to advancing sensitive diagnostic tools, identifying efficient antibody-based therapeutics, and developing effective vaccines to combat the evolving threat of SARS-CoV-2 variants on a global scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anoop Kumar
- Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, National Institute of Biologicals, Noida 201309, India
| | - Prajna Tripathi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10021, USA;
| | - Prashant Kumar
- R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Ritu Shekhar
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Rajiv Pathak
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
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Barone S, Palmieri C, Gallelli L, Rania V, Pascarella A, Abatino A, Bruno PA, Casarella A, Pasquale M, Manzo L, De Sarro G, Gambardella A, Valentino P. Humoral and T-cell response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine in multiple sclerosis patients: Correlations with DMTs and clinical variables. Neurotherapeutics 2024; 21:e00307. [PMID: 38237381 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurot.2023.e00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) can affect vaccine responses in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). We assessed the humoral and T-cell responses following SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in MS patients receiving various DMTs. We prospectively enrolled 243 participants, including 113 healthy control subjects and 130 MS patients. Blood samples for detecting SARS-CoV-2 antibodies were collected at three time points: T0, before the first vaccine dose; T1, before the second dose; and T2, one month after the second dose. In a subgroup of 51 patients and 20 controls, samples were collected at T0 and T2 to assess the T-cell immune response to the Spike antigen of SARS-CoV-2 using ELISPOT-IFNγ. The IgG levels in patients treated with fingolimod and ocrelizumab (159.1 AU/ml and 467.1 AU/ml, respectively) were significantly lower than those in healthy controls and patients on other DMTs (P < 0.0001). The mean Ig titers were higher in patients with an absolute lymphocyte count ≥1000 cells/mm3 compared to those with a count between 500 and 1000 and with a count <500 (mean ± SD:7205.6 ± 7339.2, 2413.1 ± 4515.4 and 165.9 ± 152.2, respectively; p = 0.008). We found correlations between antibody levels and age (r = 0.233, p = 0.008). A positive Spike-specific T-cell response was detectable in 100 % of vaccinated healthy controls and patients treated with teriflunomide, dimethyl-fumarate, and natalizumab, in 90.5 % of fingolimod patients, and in 63.8 % of ocrelizumab patients. There is a correlation between IgG-specific titer after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and clinical variables (age, lymphocyte count). Notably, a T-cell-specific response to SARS-CoV-2 developed in patients treated with fingolimod and ocrelizumab, even with lower rates of humoral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Barone
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Camillo Palmieri
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Chair of Clinical Biochemistry, Unit of Clinical Biochemistry, University "Magna Græcia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Luca Gallelli
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Science of Health Department, School of Medicine, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Rania
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Science of Health Department, School of Medicine, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Angelo Pascarella
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Antonio Abatino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Chair of Clinical Biochemistry, Unit of Clinical Biochemistry, University "Magna Græcia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Pietro Antonio Bruno
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Alessandro Casarella
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Science of Health Department, School of Medicine, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Marilisa Pasquale
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Lucia Manzo
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giovambattista De Sarro
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Science of Health Department, School of Medicine, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Antonio Gambardella
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Paola Valentino
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University "Magna Graecia" of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy.
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Vecchio E, Rotundo S, Veneziano C, Abatino A, Aversa I, Gallo R, Giordano C, Serapide F, Fusco P, Viglietto G, Cuda G, Costanzo F, Russo A, Trecarichi EM, Torti C, Palmieri C. The spike-specific TCRβ repertoire shows distinct features in unvaccinated or vaccinated patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. J Transl Med 2024; 22:33. [PMID: 38185632 PMCID: PMC10771664 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-04852-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The evolving variants of SARS-CoV-2 may escape immunity from prior infections or vaccinations. It's vital to understand how immunity adapts to these changes. Both infection and mRNA vaccination induce T cells that target the Spike protein. These T cells can recognize multiple variants, such as Delta and Omicron, even if neutralizing antibodies are weakened. However, the degree of recognition can vary among people, affecting vaccine efficacy. Previous studies demonstrated the capability of T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire analysis to identify conserved and immunodominant peptides with cross-reactive potential among variant of concerns. However, there is a need to extend the analysis of the TCR repertoire to different clinical scenarios. The aim of this study was to examine the Spike-specific TCR repertoire profiles in natural infections and those with combined natural and vaccine immunity. METHODS A T-cell enrichment approach and bioinformatic tools were used to investigate the Spike-specific TCRβ repertoire in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of previously vaccinated (n = 8) or unvaccinated (n = 6) COVID-19 patients. RESULTS Diversity and clonality of the TCRβ repertoire showed no significant differences between vaccinated and unvaccinated groups. When comparing the TCRβ data to public databases, 692 unique TCRβ sequences linked to S epitopes were found in the vaccinated group and 670 in the unvaccinated group. TCRβ clonotypes related to spike regions S135-177, S264-276, S319-350, and S448-472 appear notably more prevalent in the vaccinated group. In contrast, the S673-699 epitope, believed to have super antigenic properties, is observed more frequently in the unvaccinated group. In-silico analyses suggest that mutations in epitopes, relative to the main SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, don't hinder their cross-reactive recognition by associated TCRβ clonotypes. CONCLUSIONS Our findings reveal distinct TCRβ signatures in vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals with COVID-19. These differences might be associated with disease severity and could influence clinical outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION FESR/FSE 2014-2020 DDRC n. 585, Action 10.5.12, noCOVID19@UMG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Vecchio
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre of Services, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Salvatore Rotundo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Chair of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Claudia Veneziano
- Interdepartmental Centre of Services, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Antonio Abatino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Ilenia Aversa
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Raffaella Gallo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Caterina Giordano
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Francesca Serapide
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Chair of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Paolo Fusco
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Chair of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Viglietto
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cuda
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Francesco Costanzo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre of Services, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Alessandro Russo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Chair of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Enrico Maria Trecarichi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Chair of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Carlo Torti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Chair of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, University "Magna Graecia", 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Camillo Palmieri
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University "Magna Graecia", Viale Europa, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy.
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Rezahosseini O, Hamm SR, Heftdal LD, Pérez-Alós L, Møller DL, Perch M, Madsen JR, Hald A, Hansen CB, Armenteros JJA, Pries-Heje MM, Hasselbalch RB, Fogh K, Frikke-Schmidt R, Hilsted LM, Sørensen E, Ostrowski SR, Harboe ZB, Iversen K, Bundgaard H, Sørensen SS, Rasmussen A, Garred P, Nielsen SD. Humoral and T-cell response 12 months after the first BNT162b2 vaccination in solid organ transplant recipients and controls: Kinetics, associated factors, and role of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1075423. [PMID: 36713395 PMCID: PMC9880190 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1075423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction We investigated humoral and T-cell responses within 12 months after first BNT162b2 vaccine in solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients and controls who had received at least three vaccine doses. Furthermore, we compared the immune response in participants with and without previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. Methods We included adult liver, lung, and kidney transplant recipients, and controls were selected from a parallel cohort of healthcare workers. Results At 12th-month, the IgG geometric mean concentrations (GMCs) (P<0.001), IgA GMCs (P=0.003), and median IFN-γ (P<0.001) were lower in SOT recipients than in controls. However, in SOT recipients and controls with previous infection, the neutralizing index was 99%, and the IgG, and IgA responses were comparable. After adjustment, female-sex (aOR: 3.6, P<0.009), kidney (aOR: 7.0, P= 0.008) or lung transplantation (aOR: 7.5, P= 0.014), and use of mycophenolate (aOR: 5.2, P=0.03) were associated with low IgG non response. Age (OR:1.4, P=0.038), time from transplantation to first vaccine (OR: 0.45, P<0.035), and previous SARS-CoV-2 infection (OR: 0.14, P<0.001), were associated with low IgA non response. Diabetes (OR:2.4, P=0.044) was associated with T-cell non response. Conclusion In conclusion, humoral and T-cell responses were inferior in SOT recipients without previous SARS-CoV-2 infection but comparable to controls in SOT recipients with previous infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Rezahosseini
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sebastian Rask Hamm
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Line Dam Heftdal
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Laura Pérez-Alós
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical Immunology, Section 7631, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dina Leth Møller
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Perch
- Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Johannes Roth Madsen
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical Immunology, Section 7631, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Annemette Hald
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Cecilie Bo Hansen
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical Immunology, Section 7631, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jose Juan Almagro Armenteros
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mia Marie Pries-Heje
- Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rasmus Bo Hasselbalch
- Department of Cardiology, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Emergency Medicine, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kamille Fogh
- Department of Cardiology, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Emergency Medicine, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ruth Frikke-Schmidt
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Linda Maria Hilsted
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Erik Sørensen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Section 2034, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sisse Rye Ostrowski
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Immunology, Section 2034, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Zitta Barrella Harboe
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, Hospital of North Zealand, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Kasper Iversen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Cardiology, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Emergency Medicine, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henning Bundgaard
- Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Schwartz Sørensen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Nephrology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Allan Rasmussen
- Department of Surgical Gastroenterology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Garred
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical Immunology, Section 7631, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Susanne Dam Nielsen
- Viro-immunology Research Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark,Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark,*Correspondence: Susanne Dam Nielsen,
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