Localized drug delivery with mono and bilayered mucoadhesive films and wafers for oral mucosal infections

Fabrication, optimization, and evaluation of lyophilized lacidipine-loaded fatty-based nanovesicles as orally fast disintegrating sponge delivery system

Lacidipine (LCD) is a potent antihypertensive agent. Fatty-based nanovesicles (FNVs) were designed to improve LCD low solubility and bioavailability. LCD-FNVs were formulated according to different proportions of cetyl alcohol, cremophor®RH40, and oleic acid adopting Box-Behnken Design. The optimized LCD-FNVs, composed of cetyl alcohol 48.4 mg, cremophor®RH40 120 mg, and oleic acid 40 mg, showed minimum vesicle size (124.8 nm), maximum entrapment efficiency % (91.04 %) and zeta potential (-36.3 mV). The optimized FNVs were then used to formulate the lyophilized orally fast-disintegrating sponge (LY-OFDS). The LY-OFDS had a very short disintegration time (58 sec), remarkably high % drug release (100 % after 15 mins), and increased the drug transbuccal permeation by over 9.5-fold compared to the drug suspension. In-vivo evaluation of antihypertensive activity in rats showed that the LY-OFDS reduced blood pressure immediately after 5 min and reached normal blood pressure 4.5-fold faster than the marketed oral tablets. In the In-vivo pharmacokinetic study in rabbits, the LY-OFDS showed 4.7-fold higher bioavailability compared with the marketed oral tablet. In conclusion, the LY-OFDS loaded with LCD-FNVs is a safe, and non-invasive approach that can deliver LCD effectively to the blood circulation via the buccal mucosa giving superior immediate capabilities of lowering high blood pressure and increasing the drug bioavailability.

Current Drug Delivery Strategies for Buccal Cavity Ailments using Mouth Dissolving Wafer Technology: A Comprehensive Review on the Present State of the Art

BACKGROUND

Mouth-dissolving wafer is polymer-based matrice that incorporates various pharmaceutical agents for oral drug delivery. This polymeric wafer is ingenious in the way that it needs not be administered with water, like in conventional tablet dosage form. It has better compliance among the pediatric and geriatric groups owing to its ease of administration.

OBJECTIVE

The polymeric wafer dissolves quickly in the oral cavity and is highly effective for a targeted local effect in buccal-specific ailments. It is a safe, effective, and versatile drug delivery carrier for a range of drugs used to treat a plethora of oral cavity-specific ailments that inflict common people, like thrush, canker sores, periodontal disease, benign oral cavity tumors, buccal neoplasm, and malignancies. This review paper focuses thoroughly on the present state of the art in mouth-dissolving wafer technology for buccal drug delivery and targeting. Moreover, we have also addressed present-time limitations associated with wafer technology to aid researchers in future developments in the arena of buccal drug delivery.

CONCLUSION

This dynamic novel formulation has tremendous future implications for designing drug delivery systems to target pernicious ailments and diseases specific to the buccal mucosa. In a nutshell, this review paper aims to summarize the present state of the art in buccal targeted drug delivery.

Orodispersible Films: Current Innovations and Emerging Trends

Orodispersible films (ODFs) are thin, mechanically strong, and flexible polymeric films that are designed to dissolve or disintegrate rapidly in the oral cavity for local and/or systemic drug delivery. This review examines various aspects of ODFs and their potential as a drug delivery system. Recent advancements, including the detailed exploration of formulation components, such as polymers and plasticizers, are briefed. The review highlights the versatility of preparation methods, particularly the solvent-casting production process, and novel 3D printing techniques that bring inherent flexibility. Three-dimensional printing technology not only diversifies active compounds but also enables a multilayer approach, effectively segregating incompatible drugs. The integration of nanoparticles into ODF formulations marks a significant breakthrough, thus enhancing the efficiency of oral drug delivery and broadening the scope of the drugs amenable to this route. This review also sheds light on the diverse in vitro evaluation methods utilized to characterize ODFs, ongoing clinical trials, approved marketed products, and recent patents, providing a comprehensive outlook of the evolving landscape of orodispersible drug delivery. Current patient-centric approaches involve developing ODFs with patient-friendly attributes, such as improved taste masking, ease of administration, and enhanced patient compliance, along with the personalization of ODF formulations to meet individual patient needs. Investigating novel functional excipients with the potential to enhance the permeation of high-molecular-weight polar drugs, fragile proteins, and oligonucleotides is crucial for rapid progress in the advancing domain of orodispersible drug delivery.

Bioadhesives with Antimicrobial Properties

Bioadhesives with antimicrobial properties enable easier and safer treatment of wounds as compared to the traditional methods such as suturing and stapling. Composed of natural or synthetic polymers, these bioadhesives seal wounds and facilitate healing while preventing infections through the activity of locally released antimicrobial drugs, nanocomponents, or inherently antimicrobial polers. Although many different materials and strategies are employed to develop antimicrobial bioadhesives, the design of these biomaterials necessitates a prudent approach as achieving all the required properties including optimal adhesive and cohesive properties, biocompatibility, and antimicrobial activity can be challenging. Designing antimicrobial bioadhesives with tunable physical, chemical, and biological properties will shed light on the path for future advancement of bioadhesives with antimicrobial properties. In this review, the requirements and commonly used strategies for developing bioadhesives with antimicrobial properties are discussed. In particular, different methods for their synthesis and their experimental and clinical applications on a variety of organs are reviewed. Advances in the design of bioadhesives with antimicrobial properties will pave the way for a better management of wounds to increase positive clinical outcomes.

Efficacy of bioadhesives in the management of oral mucositis in patients undergoing radio-chemotherapy for treatment of head and neck cancer-a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Management of head and neck cancers requires a multidisciplinary approach where surgery followed by radio and chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment. The above-mentioned treatment can cause mucositis, a severely debilitating side effect. This can have a significant impact on quality of life. A recent advancing mode of drug delivery is the bioadhesive system. This interacts with mucosa by adhering to it and thereby improving the efficacy of the therapeutic agent delivered.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate the effectiveness of bioadhesives in reducing oral mucositis and relieving pain associated with mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving radio-chemotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Studies assessing the effectiveness of bioadhesives for the treatment of radiation-induced oral mucositis were retrieved from specialized databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, ProQuest, Google Scholar, LILACS, OpenGrey) as well as institutional repositories. Data on incidence, pain reduction, resolution, and improvement of oral mucositis using bioadhesive were compiled. A Cochrane tool was used for randomized controlled trials and a JBI tool for non-randomized controlled trials and observational studies to assess the quality of included studies. Based on the eligible study data, a meta-analysis was conducted with STATA version 16, 2019 software, and 95% confidence intervals and p values greater than 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 15 studies were included which assessed the effectiveness of bioadhesives in managing mucositis and its associated pain. Studies included in the review described either reduction, resolution, or incidence of oral mucositis respectively. A total of three meta-analyses were conducted to assess the incidence of oral mucositis and the pain associated with it, as well as the reduction in incidence. Bioadhesives showed statistically significant differences in the incidence of severe mucositis (p = 0.04). A meta-analysis comparing bioadhesives efficacy in reducing mucositis and pain associated with it found no statistically significant differences (p = 0.36).

CONCLUSION

Bioadhesives are emerging as a novel drug delivery method for treating radio-chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis because of their rapid absorption and easy application. Regardless of its benefits, clinical trials comparing it with conventional treatment methods are necessary to assess its efficacy in treating oral mucositis.

Oral Mucosa Models to Evaluate Drug Permeability

Due to its numerous advantages, such as excellent drug accessibility, rapid absorption, and bypass of first-pass metabolism, the route of drug administration that involves crossing the oral mucosa is highly favored. As a result, there is significant interest in investigating the permeability of drugs through this region. The purpose of this review is to describe the various ex vivo and in vitro models used to study the permeability of conveyed and non-conveyed drugs through the oral mucosa, with a focus on the most effective models. Currently, there is a growing need for standardized models of this mucosa that can be used for developing new drug delivery systems. Oral Mucosa Equivalents (OMEs) may provide a promising future perspective as they are capable of overcoming limitations present in many existing models.

Effective Treatment of Haemophilus influenzae-Induced Bacterial Conjunctivitis by a Bioadhesive Nanoparticle Reticulate Structure

Ocular formulations should provide an effective antibiotic concentration at the site of infection to treat bacterial eye infections. However, tears and frequent blinking accelerate the drug clearance rate and limit drug residence time on the ocular surface. This study describes a biological adhesion reticulate structure (BNP/CA-PEG) consisting of antibiotic-loaded bioadhesion nanoparticles (BNP/CA), with an average 500-600 nm diameter, and eight-arm NH₂-PEG-NH₂ for local and extended ocular drug delivery. This retention-prolonging effect is a function of the Schiff base reaction between groups on the surface of BNP and amidogen on PEG. BNP/CA-PEG showed significantly higher adhesion properties and better treatment efficacy in an ocular rat model with conjunctivitis in comparison to non-adhesive nanoparticles, BNP, or free antibiotics. Both in vivo safety experiment and in vitro cytotoxicity test verified the biocompatibility and biosafety of the biological adhesion reticulate structure, indicating a promising translational prospect for further clinical use.

Technological Aspects and Evaluation Methods for Polymer Matrices as Dental Drug Carriers

The development of polymer matrices as dental drug carriers takes into account the following technological aspects of the developed formulations: the composition and the technology used to manufacture them, which affect the properties of the carriers, as well as the testing methods for assessing their behavior at application sites. The first part of this paper characterizes the methods for fabricating dental drug carriers, i.e., the solvent-casting method (SCM), lyophilization method (LM), electrospinning (ES) and 3D printing (3DP), describing the selection of technological parameters and pointing out both the advantages of using the mentioned methods and their limitations. The second part of this paper describes testing methods to study the formulation properties, including their physical and chemical, pharmaceutical, biological and in vivo evaluation. Comprehensive in vitro evaluation of carrier properties permits optimization of formulation parameters to achieve prolonged retention time in the dynamic oral environment and is essential for explaining carrier behavior during clinical evaluation, consequently enabling the selection of the optimal formulation for oral application.

Antibacterial, wet adhesive, and healing-promoting nanosheets for the treatment of oral ulcers

The severe pain caused by oral ulcers seriously affects food intake and speech, bringing great inconvenience in daily life. Drug-loaded patches are mostly used to treat oral mucosal diseases such as oral ulcers and oral lichen planus, but their effects are limited because of the influences of saliva and muscle movement. To enhance the adhesion of drug-loaded patches used in the oral cavity, we designed antimicrobial peptides (AMPs)-modified polycaprolactone (PCL)-collagen nanosheets (APCNs). The internal layer is a bioactive and antibacterial collagen layer modified with antimicrobial peptides. The backing layer is a hydrophobic PCL layer with good mechanical strength that can reduce external influences. We have characterized and tested the APCNs. First, the APCNs exhibited continuous and strong adhesion to irregular buccal mucosa surfaces under wet conditions and external force action. Antibacterial experiments showed that the APCNs had high antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria. Moreover, the APCNs showed good biocompatibility and promoted the adhesion of fibroblasts in vitro. Furthermore, APCNs treatment accelerated ulcer healing in a Sprague Dawley rat oral ulcer model. Our study developed antibacterial, wet-adhesive, and healing-promoting PCL-collagen nanosheets and demonstrated that these nanosheets could be promising adhesive therapeutic agents for the treatment of oral mucosal ulcers.

Mucoadhesive chitosan-methylcellulose oral patches for the treatment of local mouth bacterial infections

Mucoadhesive buccal patches are dosage forms promising for successful drug delivery. They show the distinctive advantages of long residence time on the oral mucosa and increased in situ drug bioavailability. In this context, electrophoretic deposition (EPD) of chitosan (CS) has been demonstrated as a simple and easily tunable technique to produce mucoadhesive buccal patches. However, CS-based buccal patches may suffer from weak mucoadhesion, which can impair their therapeutic effect. In this work, methylcellulose (MC), a widely investigated biopolymer in the biomedical area, was exploited to increase the mucoadhesive characteristic of pristine CS patches. CS-MC patches were obtained in a one-pot process via EPD, and the possibility of incorporating gentamicin sulfate (GS) as a model of a broad-spectrum antibiotic in the so-obtained patches was investigated. The resulting CS-MC patches showed high stability in a water environment and superior mucoadhesive characteristic (σ_adh = 0.85 ± 0.26 kPa, W_adh = 1192.28 ± 602.36 Pa mm) when compared with the CS control samples (σ_adh = 0.42 ± 0.22 kPa, W_adh = 343.13 ± 268.89 Pa mm), due to both the control of the patch porosity and the bioadhesive nature of MC. Furthermore, GS-loaded patches showed no in vitro cytotoxic effects by challenging L929 cells with material extracts and noteworthy antibacterial activity on both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains.

Novel Pullulan/Gellan Gum Bilayer Film as a Vehicle for Silibinin-Loaded Nanocapsules in the Topical Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

In this study a novel gellan gum/pullulan bilayer film containing silibinin-loaded nanocapsules was developed for topical treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). The bilayer films were produced by applying a pullulan layer on a gellan gum layer incorporated with silibinin nanocapsules by two-step solvent casting method. The bilayer formation was confirmed by microscopic analysis. In vitro studies showed that pullulan imparts bioadhesitvity for the films and the presence of nanocapsules increased their occlusion factor almost 2-fold. Besides, the nano-based film presented a slow silibinin release and high affinity for cutaneous tissue. Moreover, this film presented high scavenger capacity and non-hemolytic property. In the in vivo study, interestingly, the treatments with vehicle film attenuated the scratching behavior and the ear edema in mice induced by 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB). However, the nano-based film containing silibinin modulated the inflammatory and oxidative parameters in a similar or more pronounced way than silibinin solution and vehicle film, as well as than hydrocortisone, a classical treatment of AD. In conclusion, these data suggest that itself gellan gum/pullulan bilayer film might attenuate the effects induced by DNCB, acting together with silibinin-loaded nanocapsules, which protected the skin from oxidative damage, improving the therapeutic effect in this AD-model.

Exploiting Polymeric Films as a Multipurpose Drug Delivery System: a Review

Polymeric films are drug delivery systems that maintain contact with the delivery tissue and sustain a controlled release of therapeutic molecules. These systems allow a longer time of drug contact with the target site in the case of topical treatments and allow the controlled administration of drugs. They can be manufactured by various methods such as solvent casting, hot melt extrusion, electrospinning, and 3D bioprinting. Furthermore, they can employ various polymers, for example PVP, PVA, cellulose derivatives, chitosan, gelling gum, pectin, and alginate. Its versatility is also applicable to different routes of administration, as it can be administered to the skin, oral mucosa, vaginal canal, and eyeballs. All these factors allow numerous combinations to obtain a better treatment. This review focuses on exploring some possible ways to develop them and some particularities and advantages/disadvantages in each case. It also aims to show the versatility of these systems and the advantages and disadvantages in each case, as they bring the opportunity to develop different medicines to facilitate therapies for the most diverse purposes .

The applications of polysaccharides in dentistry

Polysaccharides are natural polymers widely present in animals, plants, and several microorganisms. Polysaccharides have remarkable properties, including easy extractions, degradability, and renewability, and have no apparent toxicity, making them ideal for biomedical applications. Moreover, polysaccharides are suitable for repairing oral tissue defects and treating oral diseases due to their excellent biocompatibility, biosafety, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. The oral cavity is a relatively complex environment vulnerable to numerous conditions, including soft tissue diseases, hard tissue disorders, and as well as soft and hard tissue diseases, all of which are complex to treat. In this article, we reviewed different structures of natural polysaccharides with high commercial values and their applications in treating various oral disease, such as drug delivery, tissue regeneration, material modification, and tissue repair.

Multiple Roles of Chitosan in Mucosal Drug Delivery: An Updated Review

Chitosan (CS) is a linear polysaccharide obtained by the deacetylation of chitin, which, after cellulose, is the second biopolymer most abundant in nature, being the primary component of the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects. Since joining the pharmaceutical field, in the early 1990s, CS attracted great interest, which has constantly increased over the years, due to its several beneficial and favorable features, including large availability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, simplicity of chemical modifications, mucoadhesion and permeation enhancer power, joined to its capability of forming films, hydrogels and micro- and nanoparticles. Moreover, its cationic character, which renders it unique among biodegradable polymers, is responsible for the ability of CS to strongly interact with different types of molecules and for its intrinsic antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic activities. However, its pH-dependent solubility and susceptibility to ions presence may represent serious drawbacks and require suitable strategies to be overcome. Presently, CS and its derivatives are widely investigated for a great variety of pharmaceutical applications, particularly in drug delivery. Among the alternative routes to overcome the problems related to the classic oral drug administration, the mucosal route is becoming the favorite non-invasive delivery pathway. This review aims to provide an updated overview of the applications of CS and its derivatives in novel formulations intended for different methods of mucosal drug delivery.

The Potential of Polyelectrolyte Multilayer Films as Drug Delivery Materials

Polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) represent a group of polyelectrolyte complex (PEC)–based materials widely investigated in the biomedical and pharmaceutical sciences. Despite the unflagging popularity of the aforementioned systems in tissue engineering, only a few updated scientific reports concerning PEM potential in drug administration can be found. In fact, PEM coatings are currently recognized as important tools for functionalizing implantable scaffolds; however, only a small amount of attention has been given to PEMs as drug delivery materials. Scientific reports on PEMs reveal two dominant reasons for the limited usability of multilayers in pharmaceutical technology: complex and expensive preparation techniques as well as high sensitivity of interacting polyelectrolytes to the varieties of internal and external factors. The aim of this work was to analyze the latest approaches, concerning the potential of PEMs in pharmacy, chemical technology, and (primarily) tissue engineering, with special attention given to possible polymer combinations, technological parameters, and physicochemical characteristics, such as hydrophilicity, adhesive and swelling properties, and internal/external structures of the systems formed. Careful recognition of the above factors is crucial in the development of PEM-based drug delivery materials.

The Expanded Role of Chitosan in Localized Antimicrobial Therapy

Chitosan is one of the most studied natural origin polymers for biomedical applications. This review focuses on the potential of chitosan in localized antimicrobial therapy to address the challenges of current rising antimicrobial resistance. Due to its mucoadhesiveness, chitosan offers the opportunity to prolong the formulation residence time at mucosal sites; its wound healing properties open possibilities to utilize chitosan as wound dressings with multitargeted activities and more. We provide an unbiased overview of the state-of-the-art chitosan-based delivery systems categorized by the administration site, addressing the site-related challenges and evaluating the representative formulations. Specifically, we offer an in-depth analysis of the current challenges of the chitosan-based novel delivery systems for skin and vaginal infections, including its formulations optimizations and limitations. A brief overview of chitosan's potential in treating ocular, buccal and dental, and nasal infections is included. We close the review with remarks on toxicity issues and remaining challenges and perspectives.

Biocompatible and Biomaterials Application in Drug Delivery System in Oral Cavity

Biomaterials applications have rapidly expanded into different fields of sciences. One of the important fields of using biomaterials is dentistry, which can facilitate implantation, surgery, and treatment of oral diseases such as peri-implantitis, periodontitis, and other dental problems. Drug delivery systems based on biocompatible materials play a vital role in the release of drugs into aim tissues of the oral cavity with minimum side effects. Therefore, scientists have studied various delivery systems to improve the efficacy and acceptability of therapeutic approaches in dental problems and oral diseases. Also, biomaterials could be utilized as carriers in biocompatible drug delivery systems. For instance, natural polymeric substances, such as gelatin, chitosan, calcium phosphate, alginate, and xanthan gum are used to prepare different forms of delivery systems. In addition, some alloys are conducted in drug complexes for the better in transportation. Delivery systems based on biomaterials are provided with different strategies, although individual biomaterial has advantages and disadvantages which have a significant influence on transportation of complex such as solubility in physiological environments or distribution in tissues. Biomaterials have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects and prolonged time contact and even enhance antibiotic activities in oral infections. Moreover, these biomaterials are commonly prepared in some forms such as particulate complex, fibers, microspheres, gels, hydrogels, and injectable systems. In this review, we examined the application of biocompatible materials in drug delivery systems of oral and dental diseases or problems.

Multilayer Films Based on Chitosan/Pectin Polyelectrolyte Complexes as Novel Platforms for Buccal Administration of Clotrimazole

Buccal films are recognized as easily applicable, microbiologically stable drug dosage forms with good retentivity at the mucosa intended for the therapy of oromucosal conditions, especially infectious diseases. Multilayer films composed of layers of oppositely charged polymers separated by ionically interacting polymeric chains creating polyelectrolyte complexes represent very interesting and relatively poorly explored area. We aimed to develop the antifungal multilayer systems composed of cationic chitosan and anionic pectin as potential platforms for controlled delivery of clotrimazole. The systems were pharmaceutically characterized with regard to inter alia their release kinetics under different pH conditions, physicomechanical, or mucoadhesion properties with using an animal model of the buccal mucosa. The antifungal activity against selected Candida sp. and potential cytotoxicity with regard to human gingival fibroblasts were also evaluated. Interactions between polyions were characterized with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Different clotrimazole distribution in the films layers highly affected their in vitro dissolution profile. The designed films were recognized as intelligent pH-responsive systems with strong antifungal effect and satisfactory safety profile. As addition of chitosan resulted in the improved antifungal behavior of the drug, the potential utilization of the films in resistant cases of oral candidiasis might be worth of further exploration.

Natural Polymers for the Maintenance of Oral Health: Review of Recent Advances and Perspectives

The success of modern dental treatment is strongly dependent on the materials used both temporarily and permanently. Among all dental materials, polymers are a very important class with a wide spectrum of applications. This review aims to provide a state-of-the-art overview of the recent advances in the field of natural polymers used to maintain or restore oral health. It focuses on the properties of the most common proteins and polysaccharides of natural origin in terms of meeting the specific biological requirements in the increasingly demanding field of modern dentistry. The use of naturally derived polymers in different dental specialties for preventive and therapeutic purposes has been discussed. The major fields of application cover caries and the management of periodontal diseases, the fabrication of membranes and scaffolds for the regeneration of dental structures, the manufacturing of oral appliances and dentures as well as providing systems for oral drug delivery. This paper also includes a comparative characteristic of natural and synthetic dental polymers. Finally, the current review highlights new perspectives, possible future advancements, as well as challenges that may be encountered by researchers in the field of dental applications of polymers of natural origin.

Development and optimization of a new tioconazole vaginal mucoadhesive film using an experimental design strategy. Physicochemical and biological characterization

A new tioconazole (TCZ) mucoadhesive film, based on a biodegradable chitosan/ hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (CH/HPMC) blend, was developed for treatment of vaginal candidiasis. The formulation was optimized through an I-optimal design (minimizing the integral of the prediction variance across the factor space), where the impact of the proportion of the ingredients and processing variables on the quality of the final product was evaluated. Both, the thickness of the film and the swelling index, which affect patients' comfort and compliance, were considered. Mechanical testing, such as load at break, elongation at break, and mucoadhesive strength were also included as dependent variables. The optimal mucoadhesive film formulation, which should be obtained at a drying temperature of 30 °C, was found to include the combination of CH and HPMC (forming polymers) at 0.25:0.75 ratio, a mixture of polyethylene glycol 400 and propylene glycol as plasticizers (0.07:0.93, 5% w/w), and TCZ loaded at 15 % w/w. The optimal preparation was subjected to exhaustive characterization studies, which revealed that the drug was entrapped in the polymeric matrix in an amorphous state and that the film exhibited a smooth and uniform surface, demonstrating excellent component compatibility. In vitro tests showed that the formulation has an excellent time to kill value (3 min) and lacks cytotoxicity, suggesting that it should be highly effective and safe.

Recent advances of oral film as platform for drug delivery

Orally drug delivery film has received extensive interest duo to a distinct set of its advantageous properties compared to the traditional orally administered dosages, including faster rate of drug absorption, higher bioavailability and better patient compliance for children and elders with swallowing deficiencies. In particular, its potential capacity of delivering proteins and peptides has further attracted great attention. Lately, tremendous advances have been made in designing and developing both novel mucoadhesive films and orodispersible films to fulfill specific accomplishments of drug delivery. This review aims to summarize those newly developed oral films, discussing their formulation strategies, manufacturing methods as well as advantages and limitations thereof. Conclusions and future perspectives are also provided in brief.

Current status and future of delivery systems for prevention and treatment of infections in the oral cavity

Oral health reflects the general health, and it is fundamental to well-being and quality of life. An infection in the oral cavity can be associated with serious complications in human health. Local therapy of these infections offers many advantages over systemic drug administration, targeting directly to the diseased area while minimizing systemic side effects. Specialized drug delivery systems into the oral cavity have to be designed in such a fashion that they resist to the aqueous environment that is constantly bathed in saliva and subject to mechanical forces. Additionally, a prolonged release of drug should also be provided, which would enhance the efficacy and also decrease the repeated dosing. This review is aimed to summarize the current most relevant findings related to local drug delivery of various drug groups for prevention and treatment of infections (viral, bacterial, fungal) and infection-related manifestations in the oral cavity. Current therapeutic challenges in regard to effective local drug delivery systems will be discussed, and the recent approaches to overcome these obstacles will be reviewed. Finally, future prospects will be overviewed to promote novel strategies that can be implemented in clinical management for prevention and treatment of oral infections.

Poloxamer-188 and d-α-Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol Succinate (TPGS-1000) Mixed Micelles Integrated Orodispersible Sublingual Films to Improve Oral Bioavailability of Ebastine; In Vitro and In Vivo Characterization

Orodispersible sublingual films (OSFs) composed of hydrophilic polymers were loaded with poloxamer-188 and d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS-1000) mixed micelles to improve the oral bioavailability of a poorly soluble drug, ebastine (EBT). Mixed micelles formed by thin-film hydration method were incorporated into orodispersible sublingual film, consisting of HPMC and glycerol, using solvent casting technique. The mixed micelles and films were thoroughly evaluated for physicochemical characterization (size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, thickness, weight, surface pH studies, disintegration time, swelling indices, mechanical properties, FTIR, PXRD, DSC, SEM, AFM, in vitro drug release, in vivo bioavailability, and toxicological studies). The results showed that the average particle size of mixed micelles was 73 nm. The mean zeta potential and PDI of the optimal mixed micelles formulation were -26 mV and 0.16, respectively. Furthermore, the maximum entrapment efficiency 82% was attained. The film's disintegration time was in the range of 28 to 102 s in aqueous media. The integrity of micelles was not affected upon incorporation in films. Importantly, the micelles-loaded films revealed rapid absorption, high permeability, and increased bioavailability of EBT as compared to the pure drug. The existence of ebastine loaded mixed micelles in the films enhanced the bioavailability about 2.18 folds as compared to pure drug. Further, the results evidently established in-vitro and in-vivo performance of bioavailability enhancement, biocompatibility, and good safety profile of micelles-loaded orodispersible EBT films. Finally, it was concluded that film loaded with poloxamer-188/TPGS-1000 mixed micelles could be an effective carrier system for enhancing the bioavailability of ebastine.

Impact of the mucoadhesive lyophilized wafer loaded with novel carvedilol nano-spanlastics on biochemical markers in the heart of spontaneously hypertensive rat models

The purpose of this investigation was to encapsulate carvedilol, a model beta-blocker antihypertensive into nano-spanlastics, followed by incorporation into 1% CMC wafer to afford a mucoadhesive buccal drug delivery system, targeting to sidestep the first-pass metabolism, improving the drug absorption and pharmacological effect, achieving non-invasive buccal delivery for treating hypertension. Carvedilol-loaded nano-spanlastics were rendered by ethanol injection technique, using 2³ factorial design. The effect of formulation variables was investigated on nano-spanlastic characteristics. The optimal nano-spanlastic formulation (S2; containing 20% Brij 97) exhibited particle size (239.8 ± 5 nm), entrapment efficiency (98. 16 ± 1.44%), deformability index (8.74 ± 0.42 g), and the flux after 24 h (J_max) (22.5 ± 0.25 (μg/cm²/h) with enhancement ratio 2.87 as well as excellent stability after storage. Permeation study verified the preeminence of the S2 formula. A confocal laser scanning microscope showed deep penetration of S2 through sheep buccal mucosa formula compared to rhodamine B solution. S2-based wafer showed acceptable characters (pH, swelling, drug content, residence time, and release rate). In vivo studies (pharmacodynamic study and biochemical evaluation) showed considerable improvement in blood pressure, the profile of the lipid, oxidant stress biomarkers, and cardiac markers. Histopathological studies revealed the superiority of S2 wafer in the protection of heart tissues over Carvid®. The results achieved indicate that nano-spanlastic-based wafer offers a promising improving trans-buccal carvedilol delivery system. Graphical abstract.

Formulation Development of Mucoadhesive Microparticle-Laden Gels for Oral Mucositis: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

In order to relieve pain due to oral mucositis, we attempted to develop mucoadhesive microparticles containing indomethacin (IM) and gel preparations with IM microparticles that can be applied to the oral cavity. The mucoadhesive microparticles were prepared with a simple composition consisting of IM and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Two kinds of PVA with different block properties were used, and microparticles were prepared by heating-filtration and mixing-drying. From the X-ray powder diffraction patterns, differential scanning calorimetry thermograms, and morphological features of the IM microparticles, IM should exist as polymorphic forms in the microparticles. Rapid drug release properties were observed in the IM microparticles. Increased drug retention was observed in IM microparticles containing PVA, and the IM-NK(50) gel, using a common block character PVA and heating-filtration, showed good long-term drug retention properties. In vivo experiments showing significantly higher drug concentrations in the oral mucosa were observed with IM microparticles prepared by heating-filtration, and the IM-NK(50) gel maintained significantly higher drug concentrations in the oral mucosa. From these results, the IM-NK(50) gel may be useful as a preparation for relieving oral mucositis pain.

Mucoadhesive bilayered buccal platform for antifungal drug delivery into the oral cavity

A drug delivery technology comprising a mucoadhesive bilayered buccally anchored tablet containing natamycin was developed. The concept was to anchor the tablet to the buccal tissue and allow controlled release of the drug through the matrix into the mouth. Carbomer (Carbopol ® 974 P NF) was used to formulate the mucoadhesive layer. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) (Methocel® K4M) at 10, 15, 20, and 40% w/w was used for the drug-containing layer. Natamycin, an amphoteric macrolide antifungal agent, was incorporated into the formulations. In addition, tablets containing erythrosine as a marker were prepared in order to examine the distribution and retention of the dye in the oral cavity. As expected, the in vitro analysis showed that the concentration of natamycin released decreased with the increasing proportion of HPMC in the formulation. A small volunteer study was conducted using the tablets containing 10% and 20% HPMC to quantitate the patterns of distribution of the drug released into the oral cavity (upper right buccal vestibule, lower right and left buccal vestibules, and sublingual region). The mucoadhesive bilayered buccal tablet formulation provided a unidirectional release of the drug from the tablet into the oral cavity in a prolonged release fashion, maintaining drug concentration above the MIC value (2 μg/mL) for Candida albicans. The amount of the drug in the sublingual region was found to be lowest when compared with other regions, which is due to the higher flow of saliva in this region. Graphical abstract.

In Vitro-in Vivo Correlation of Mucoadhesion Studies on Buccal Mucosa

BACKGROUND

For the development of novel buccoadhesive formulations, their physicochemical properties, strength of the interfacial joint, and residence time on the buccal mucosa are considered as a measure for their in vivo mucoadhesive properties. Focusing on these parameters, the predictive power of established in vitro systems was assessed for mucoadhesive properties in humans using discs as the model solid dosage form.

METHODS

Compressed into discs, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, carbopol, polycarbophil, alginate, and xanthan gum were used as model polymers. Mucosal residence time, maximum detachment force (MDF), and total work of adhesion (TWA) were determined ex vivo on the porcine buccal mucosa and in vivo on healthy volunteers. The impact of detachment velocity, humidification, and experimental set-up employed for tensile studies was examined and correlated to in vivo studies.

RESULTS

Ex vivo results for mucosal residence time showed a very high correlation ( r = 0.997) with data obtained in vivo. For tensile studies, a set-up optimized for moistening the interface, speed, and alignment of the tensile force provided ex vivo results with very high correlation to in vivo experiments with r = 0.983 obtained for MDF and r = 0.973 for TWA, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Experimental set-ups for the determination of mucosal residence time and tensile studies could be identified as valid methods for the development of intraoral solid dosage forms.