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Zheltyakova M, Korotkov A, Cherednichenko D, Didur M, Kireev M. To lie or to tell the truth? The influence of processing the opponent's feedback on the forthcoming choice. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1275884. [PMID: 38784609 PMCID: PMC11112074 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1275884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The brain mechanisms of deceptive behavior are relatively well studied, and the key brain regions involved in its processing were established. At the same time, the brain mechanisms underlying the processes of preparation for deception are less known. Methods We studied BOLD-signal changes during the presentation of the opponent's feedback to a previous deceptive or honest action during the computer game. The goal of the game was to mislead the opponent either by means of deception or by means of telling the truth. Results As a result, it was shown that several brain regions that were previously demonstrated as involved in deception execution, such as the left anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula, also underlie processes related to deception preparation. Discussion The results obtained also allowed us to suggest that brain regions responsible for performance monitoring, intention assessment, suppression of non-selected solutions, and reward processing could be involved in shaping future action selection and preparation for deception. By shedding light on the brain mechanisms underlying deception, our study contributes to a deeper understanding of this complex cognitive process. Furthermore, it emphasizes the significance of exploring brain mechanisms governing the choice between deception and truth at various stages of decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Maxim Kireev
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Science, Saint Petersburg, Russia
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2
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Wu J, Huang J, Li J, Chen X, Xiao Y. The role of conflict processing mechanism in deception responses. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18300. [PMID: 36316417 PMCID: PMC9622869 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21569-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A considerable number of studies have described the potential neural mechanism of deception, but most deception studies have relied upon deception from experimental supervisor instruction. Experimental control (participants follow instructions to deceive without any risk) means that the deception occurs in a way that does not come close to the real deception. In the current study, a neural imaging experiment on deception closer to the real deception was conducted. Event-related potential (ERP) and event-related spectral perturbation (ERSP) techniques were used to explore the neural mechanism of deception. The results showed that deceptive response evoked larger medial-frontal negativity (MFN) and smaller response-locked positivity (RLP) than truthful response. We interpret these findings to indicate that conflict detection and emotional processing are associated with deception. In addition, magnitudes of alpha and beta oscillations after the deceptive response were significantly smaller than those after the truthful response, demonstrating that deception is associated with neural oscillations reflecting conflict adjustment. The results comprehensively characterized the physiological properties of the brain oscillations elicited by a deceptive response and provided a theoretical foundation for detection in practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jintao Wu
- Beijing Machine and Equipment Institute, Beijing, 100854 China ,grid.418516.f0000 0004 1791 7464National Key Laboratory of Human Factors Engineering, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, 100094 China
| | - Jie Huang
- grid.414351.60000 0004 0530 7044Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital, Peking University HuiLongGuan Clinical Medical School, Beijing, 100096 China
| | - Jiaxuan Li
- Beijing Machine and Equipment Institute, Beijing, 100854 China
| | - Xianglin Chen
- grid.43555.320000 0000 8841 6246Beijing Institute of Information Technology, Beijing, 100094 China
| | - Yi Xiao
- grid.418516.f0000 0004 1791 7464National Key Laboratory of Human Factors Engineering, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, 100094 China
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3
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Suppression of non-selected solutions as a possible brain mechanism for ambiguity resolution in the word fragment task completion task. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1829. [PMID: 35115559 PMCID: PMC8814017 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05646-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain systems dealing with multiple meanings of ambiguous stimuli are relatively well studied, while the processing of non-selected meanings is less investigated in the neurophysiological literature and provokes controversy between existing theories. It is debated whether these meanings are actively suppressed and, if yes, whether suppression characterizes any task that involves alternative solutions or only those tasks that emphasize semantic processing or the existence of alternatives. The current functional MRI event-related study used a modified version of the word fragment completion task to reveal brain mechanisms involved in implicit processing of the non-selected solutions of ambiguous fragments. The stimuli were pairs of fragmented adjectives and nouns. Noun fragments could have one or two solutions (resulting in two words with unrelated meanings). Adjective fragments had one solution and created contexts strongly suggesting one solution for ambiguous noun fragments. All fragmented nouns were presented twice during the experiment (with two different adjectives). We revealed that ambiguity resolution was associated with a reduced BOLD signal within several regions related to language processing, including the anterior hippocampi and amygdala and posterior lateral temporal cortex. Obtained findings were interpreted as resulting from brain activity inhibition, which underlies a hypothesized mechanism of suppression of non-selected solutions.
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4
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Individual differences in (dis)honesty are represented in the brain's functional connectivity at rest. Neuroimage 2021; 246:118761. [PMID: 34861396 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Measurement of the determinants of socially undesirable behaviors, such as dishonesty, are complicated and obscured by social desirability biases. To circumvent these biases, we used connectome-based predictive modeling (CPM) on resting state functional connectivity patterns in combination with a novel task which inconspicuously measures voluntary cheating to gain access to the neurocognitive determinants of (dis)honesty. Specifically, we investigated whether task-independent neural patterns within the brain at rest could be used to predict a propensity for (dis)honest behavior. Our analyses revealed that functional connectivity, especially between brain networks linked to self-referential thinking (vmPFC, temporal poles, and PCC) and reward processing (caudate nucleus), reliably correlates, in an independent sample, with participants' propensity to cheat. Participants who cheated the most also scored highest on several self-report measures of impulsivity which underscores the generalizability of our results. Notably, when comparing neural and self-report measures, the neural measures were found to be more important in predicting cheating propensity.
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5
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Zheltyakova M, Korotkov A, Cherednichenko D, Kireev M. Functional Interactions Between Neural Substrates of Socio-cognitive Mechanisms Involved in Simple Deception and Manipulative Truth. Brain Connect 2021; 12:639-649. [PMID: 34470467 DOI: 10.1089/brain.2021.0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Deceptive intentions may be realized by imparting false (simple deception) or true (manipulative truth) information. Both forms of deception require inferring others' thoughts and are underpinned by the theory of mind (TOM) neural system. Manipulative truth is thought to more strongly recruit these processes. However, the organization of functional interactions underlying simple deception and manipulative truth remains unclear. Materials and Methods: We performed psychophysiological interaction analysis for a key node in the TOM system, the right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ), using functional MRI data obtained from 23 volunteers (14 men and 9 women, age range 18-45 years) during the sender-receiver game. During the game, participants sent true, simple deceptive, or manipulative truthful messages to another player according to their own choice. A Bayesian approach to statistics was employed to perform statistical inference and define voxels with significant changes in functional interactions. Results: We observed functional interactions between nodes of the TOM system (bilateral TPJ, left precuneus, left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and right superior temporal sulcus) characterizing both forms of deception. We identified an increment in functional interactions of the rTPJ with the left TPJ (lTPJ) and right precuneus associated with manipulative truth. Furthermore, we demonstrated that a higher rate of manipulative truthful actions was associated with weaker functional interactions between the rTPJ and lTPJ, left precuneus, and left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Discussion: Compared with simple deception, manipulative truth is associated with a higher demand for socio-cognitive processes that contributes to the cognitive load of this form of deception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Zheltyakova
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Alexander Korotkov
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Denis Cherednichenko
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Maxim Kireev
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
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6
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Meier SK, Ray KL, Mastan JC, Salvage SR, Robin DA. Meta-analytic connectivity modelling of deception-related brain regions. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0248909. [PMID: 34432808 PMCID: PMC8386837 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-based deception research began only two decades ago and has since included a wide variety of contexts and response modalities for deception paradigms. Investigations of this sort serve to better our neuroscientific and legal knowledge of the ways in which individuals deceive others. To this end, we conducted activation likelihood estimation (ALE) and meta-analytic connectivity modelling (MACM) using BrainMap software to examine 45 task-based fMRI brain activation studies on deception. An activation likelihood estimation comparing activations during deceptive versus honest behavior revealed 7 significant peak activation clusters (bilateral insula, left superior frontal gyrus, bilateral supramarginal gyrus, and bilateral medial frontal gyrus). Meta-analytic connectivity modelling revealed an interconnected network amongst the 7 regions comprising both unidirectional and bidirectional connections. Together with subsequent behavioral and paradigm decoding, these findings implicate the supramarginal gyrus as a key component for the sociocognitive process of deception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. Meier
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Research Laboratories, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
- * E-mail: (SKM); (DAR)
| | - Kimberly L. Ray
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Juliana C. Mastan
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Research Laboratories, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Savannah R. Salvage
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Research Laboratories, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Donald A. Robin
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Research Laboratories, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
- * E-mail: (SKM); (DAR)
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7
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Patrick SD, Rapport LJ, Kanser RJ, Hanks RA, Bashem JR. Performance validity assessment using response time on the Warrington Recognition Memory Test. Clin Neuropsychol 2021; 35:1154-1173. [PMID: 32068486 DOI: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1716997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The present study tested the incremental utility of response time (RT) on the Warrington Recognition Memory Test - Words (RMT-W) in classifying bona fide versus feigned TBI. METHOD Participants were 173 adults: 55 with moderate to severe TBI, 69 healthy comparisons (HC) instructed to perform their best, and 49 healthy adults coached to simulate TBI (SIM). Participants completed a computerized version of the RMT-W in the context of a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. Groups were compared on RT indices including mean RT (overall, correct trials, incorrect trials) and variability, as well as the traditional RMT-W accuracy score. RESULTS Several RT indices differed significantly across groups, although RMT-W accuracy predicted group membership more strongly than any individual RT index. SIM showed longer average RT than both TBI and HC. RT variability and RT for incorrect trials distinguished SIM-HC but not SIM-TBI comparisons. In general, results for SIM-TBI comparisons were weaker than SIM-HC results. For SIM-HC comparisons, classification accuracy was excellent for all multivariable models incorporating RMT-W accuracy with one of the RT indices. For SIM-TBI comparisons, classification accuracies for multivariable models ranged from acceptable to excellent discriminability. In addition to mean RT and RT on correct trials, the ratio of RT on correct items to incorrect items showed incremental predictive value to accuracy. CONCLUSION Findings support the growing body of research supporting the value of combining RT with PVTs in discriminating between verified and feigned TBI. The diagnostic accuracy of the RMT-W can be improved by incorporating RT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah D Patrick
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Lisa J Rapport
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Robert J Kanser
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Robin A Hanks
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Jesse R Bashem
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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8
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Pinti P, Devoto A, Greenhalgh I, Tachtsidis I, Burgess PW, de C Hamilton AF. The role of anterior prefrontal cortex (area 10) in face-to-face deception measured with fNIRS. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2021; 16:129-142. [PMID: 32577765 PMCID: PMC7812627 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsaa086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anterior prefrontal cortex (PFC, Brodmann area 10) activations are often, but not always, found in neuroimaging studies investigating deception, and the precise role of this area remains unclear. To explore the role of the PFC in face-to-face deception, we invited pairs of participants to play a card game involving lying and lie detection while we used functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to record brain activity in the PFC. Participants could win points for successfully lying about the value of their cards or for detecting lies. We contrasted patterns of brain activation when the participants either told the truth or lied, when they were either forced into this or did so voluntarily and when they either succeeded or failed to detect a lie. Activation in the anterior PFC was found in both lie production and detection, unrelated to reward. Analysis of cross-brain activation patterns between participants identified areas of the PFC where the lead player’s brain activity synchronized their partner’s later brain activity. These results suggest that during situations that involve close interpersonal interaction, the anterior PFC supports processing widely involved in deception, possibly relating to the demands of monitoring one’s own and other people’s behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Pinti
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK.,Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AZ, UK
| | - Andrea Devoto
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AZ, UK
| | - Isobel Greenhalgh
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AZ, UK
| | - Ilias Tachtsidis
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Paul W Burgess
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AZ, UK
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9
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Delgado-Herrera M, Reyes-Aguilar A, Giordano M. What Deception Tasks Used in the Lab Really Do: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Ecological Validity of fMRI Deception Tasks. Neuroscience 2021; 468:88-109. [PMID: 34111448 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Interpretation of the neural findings of deception without considering the ecological validity of the experimental tasks could lead to biased conclusions. In this study we classified the experimental tasks according to their inclusion of three essential components required for ecological validity: intention to lie, social interaction and motivation. First, we carried out a systematic review to categorize fMRI deception tasks and to weigh the degree of ecological validity of each one. Second, we performed a meta-analysis to identify if each type of task involves a different neural substrate and to distinguish the neurocognitive contribution of each component of ecological validity essential to deception. We detected six categories of deception tasks. Intention to lie was the component least frequently included, followed by social interaction. Monetary reward was the most frequent motivator. The results of the meta-analysis, including 59 contrasts, revealed that intention to lie is associated with activation in the left lateral occipital cortex (superior division) whereas the left angular gyrus and right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) are engaged during lying under instructions. Additionally, the right IFG appears to participate in the social aspect of lying including simulated and real interactions. We found no effect of monetary reward in our analysis. Finally, tasks with high ecological validity recruited fewer brain areas (right insular cortex and bilateral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)) compared to less ecological tasks, perhaps because they are more natural and realistic, and engage a wide network of brain mechanisms, as opposed to specific tasks that demand more centralized processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maribel Delgado-Herrera
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro 76230, Mexico.
| | - Azalea Reyes-Aguilar
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Neurociencias, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3004, Ciudad de México, México.
| | - Magda Giordano
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro 76230, Mexico.
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10
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Ponsi G, Scattolin M, Villa R, Aglioti SM. Human moral decision-making through the lens of Parkinson's disease. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2021; 7:18. [PMID: 33654110 PMCID: PMC7925586 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-021-00167-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia (BG) and thalamocortical circuitry. While defective motor control has long been considered the defining symptom of PD, mounting evidence indicates that the BG are fundamentally important for a multitude of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes in addition to motor function. Here, we review alterations in moral decision-making in people with PD, specifically in the context of deceptive behavior. We report that PD patients exhibit two opposite behavioral patterns: hyper- and hypo-honesty. The hyper-honest subgroup engages in deception less often than matched controls, even when lying is associated with a monetary payoff. This behavioral pattern seems to be linked to dopaminergic hypo-activity, implying enhanced harm avoidance, risk aversion, non-impulsivity, and reduced reward sensitivity. On the contrary, the hypo-honest subgroup-often characterized by the additional diagnosis of impulse control disorders (ICDs) and dopamine dysregulation syndrome (DDS)-deceives more often than both PD patients without ICDs/DDS and controls. This behavioral pattern appears to be associated with dopaminergic hyperactivity, which underpins enhanced novelty-seeking, risk-proneness, impulsivity, and reward sensitivity. We posit that these two complementary behavioral patterns might be related to dysfunction of the dopaminergic reward system, leading to reduced or enhanced motivation to deceive. Only a few studies have directly investigated moral decision-making in PD and other neurodegenerative disorders affecting the BG, and further research on the causal role of subcortical structures in shaping moral behavior is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Ponsi
- Department of Psychology Sapienza University of Rome and CLNS@SAPIENZA Roma, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy.
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy.
| | - Marina Scattolin
- Department of Psychology Sapienza University of Rome and CLNS@SAPIENZA Roma, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy
| | - Riccardo Villa
- Department of Psychology Sapienza University of Rome and CLNS@SAPIENZA Roma, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy
| | - Salvatore Maria Aglioti
- Department of Psychology Sapienza University of Rome and CLNS@SAPIENZA Roma, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy.
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy.
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11
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Liang Y, Fu G, Yu R, Bi Y, Ding XP. The Role of Reward System in Dishonest Behavior: A Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study. Brain Topogr 2020; 34:64-77. [PMID: 33135142 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-020-00804-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that the cortical reward system plays an important role in deceptive behavior. However, how the reward system activates during the whole course of dishonest behavior and how it affects dishonest decisions remain unclear. The current study investigated these questions. One hundred and two participants were included in the final analysis. They completed two tasks: monetary incentive delay (MID) task and an honesty task. The MID task served as the localizer task and the honesty task was used to measure participants' deceptive behaviors. Participants' spontaneous responses in the honesty task were categorized into three conditions: Correct-Truth condition (tell the truth after guessing correctly), Incorrect-Truth condition (tell the truth after guessing incorrectly), and Incorrect-Lie condition (tell lies after guessing incorrectly). To reduce contamination from neighboring functional regions as well as to increase sensitivity to small effects (Powell et al., Devel Sci 21:e12595, 2018), we adopted the individual functional channel of interest (fCOI) approach to analyze the data. Specially, we identified the channels of interest in the MID task in individual participants and then applied them to the honesty task. The result suggested that the reward system showed different activation patterns during different phases: In the pre-decision phase, the reward system was activated with the winning of the reward. During the decision and feedback phase, the reward system was activated when people made the decisions to be dishonest and when they evaluated the outcome of their decisions. Furthermore, the result showed that neural activity of the reward system toward the outcome of their decision was related to subsequent dishonest behaviors. Thus, the present study confirmed the important role of the reward system in deception. These results can also shed light on how one could use neuroimaging techniques to perform lie-detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yibiao Liang
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.,Psychology Department, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Runxin Yu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Nuralogix (Hangzhou) Artificial Intelligence Company Limited, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yue Bi
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xiao Pan Ding
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
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12
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Zheltyakova M, Kireev M, Korotkov A, Medvedev S. Neural mechanisms of deception in a social context: an fMRI replication study. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10713. [PMID: 32612101 PMCID: PMC7329834 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67721-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Deception is a form of manipulation aimed at misleading another person by conveying false or truthful messages. Manipulative truthful statements could be considered as sophisticated deception and elicit an increased cognitive load. However, only one fMRI study reported its neural correlates. To provide independent evidence for sophisticated deception, we carried out an fMRI study replicating the experimental paradigm and Bayesian statistical approach utilized in that study. During the experiment, participants played a game against an opponent by sending deliberate deceptive or honest messages. Compared to truth-telling, deceptive intentions, regardless of how they were fulfilled, were associated with increased BOLD signals in the bilateral temporoparietal junction (TPJ), left precuneus, and right superior temporal sulcus (STS). The right TPJ participates in the attribution of mental states, acting in a social context, and moral behaviour. Moreover, the other revealed brain areas have been considered nodes in the theory of mind brain neural system. Therefore, the obtained results reflect an increased demand for socio‑cognitive processes associated with deceptive intentions. We replicated the original study showing the involvement of the right TPJ and expanded upon it by revealing the involvement of the left TPJ, left precuneus and right STS in actions with deceptive intentions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Zheltyakova
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Maxim Kireev
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Alexander Korotkov
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Svyatoslav Medvedev
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
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13
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Can fMRI discriminate between deception and false memory? A meta-analytic comparison between deception and false memory studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 104:43-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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14
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Hsu CW, Begliomini C, Dall'Acqua T, Ganis G. The effect of mental countermeasures on neuroimaging-based concealed information tests. Hum Brain Mapp 2019; 40:2899-2916. [PMID: 30864277 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.24567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last decade and a half, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used to determine whether it is possible to detect concealed knowledge by examining brain activation patterns, with mixed results. Concealed information tests rely on the logic that a familiar item (probe) elicits a stronger response than unfamiliar, but otherwise comparable items (irrelevants). Previous work has shown that physical countermeasures can artificially modulate neural responses in concealed information tests, decreasing the accuracy of these methods. However, the question remains as to whether purely mental countermeasures, which are much more difficult to detect than physical ones, can also be effective. An fMRI study was conducted to address this question by assessing the effect of attentional countermeasures on the accuracy of the classification between knowledge and no-knowledge cases using both univariate and multivariate analyses. Results replicate previous work and show reliable group activation differences between the probe and the irrelevants in fronto-parietal networks. Critically, classification accuracy was generally reduced by the mental countermeasures, but only significantly so with region of interest analyses (both univariate and multivariate). For whole-brain analyses, classification accuracy was relatively low, but it was not significantly reduced by the countermeasures. These results indicate that mental countermeasure need to be addressed before these paradigms can be used in applied settings and that methods to defeat countermeasures, or at least to detect their use, need to be developed. HIGHLIGHTS: FMRI-based concealed information tests are vulnerable to mental countermeasures Measures based on regions of interest are affected by mental countermeasures Whole-brain analyses may be more robust than region of interest ones Methods to detect mental countermeasure use are needed for forensic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Wei Hsu
- School of Psychology and Cognition Institute, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Chiara Begliomini
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Cognitive Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Giorgio Ganis
- School of Psychology and Cognition Institute, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
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15
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Kanser RJ, Rapport LJ, Bashem JR, Hanks RA. Detecting malingering in traumatic brain injury: Combining response time with performance validity test accuracy. Clin Neuropsychol 2018; 33:90-107. [DOI: 10.1080/13854046.2018.1440006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J. Kanser
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Lisa J. Rapport
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Jesse R. Bashem
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Robin A. Hanks
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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16
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Kireev M, Korotkov A, Medvedeva N, Masharipov R, Medvedev S. Deceptive but Not Honest Manipulative Actions Are Associated with Increased Interaction between Middle and Inferior Frontal gyri. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:482. [PMID: 28912675 PMCID: PMC5583606 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex is believed to be responsible for execution of deceptive behavior and its involvement is associated with greater cognitive efforts. It is also generally assumed that deception is associated with the inhibition of default honest actions. However, the precise neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this process remain largely unknown. The present study was aimed to use functional magnetic resonance imaging to reveal the underlying functional integration within the prefrontal cortex during the task which requires that subjects to deliberately mislead an opponent through the sequential execution of deceptive and honest claims. To address this issue, we performed psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analysis, which allows for statistical assessment of changes in functional relationships between active brain areas in changing psychological contexts. As a result the whole brain PPI-analysis established that both manipulative honest and deceptive claiming were associated with an increase in connectivity between the left middle frontal gyrus and right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ). Taking into account the role played by rTPJ in processes associated with the theory of mind the revealed data can reflect possible influence of socio-cognitive context on the process of selecting manipulative claiming regardless their honest or deceptive nature. Direct comparison between deceptive and honest claims revealed pattern enhancement of coupling between the left middle frontal gyrus and the left inferior frontal gyrus. This finding provided evidence that the execution of deception relies to a greater extent on higher-order hierarchically-organized brain mechanisms of executive control required to select between two competing deceptive or honest task sets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim Kireev
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of SciencesSt. Petersburg, Russia
- Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences, St. Petersburg State UniversitySt. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Alexander Korotkov
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of SciencesSt. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Natalia Medvedeva
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of SciencesSt. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ruslan Masharipov
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of SciencesSt. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Svyatoslav Medvedev
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of SciencesSt. Petersburg, Russia
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17
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Noguchi Y, Oizumi R. Electric stimulation of the right temporo-parietal junction induces a task-specific effect in deceptive behaviors. Neurosci Res 2017; 128:33-39. [PMID: 28728912 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2017.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
How the brain generates a lie is an important and unsolved issue in neuroscience. Previous studies indicated that mentalizing, the ability to understand and manipulate the mental states of others, plays a critical role in successful deception. Accordingly, recent neuroimaging studies reported deception-related activity in the right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ), a brain region closely related to the mentalizing ability. Detailed functions of rTPJ in deception, however, remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated a causal relationship between rTPJ and deception using transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS). Subjects received anodal tDCS to their rTPJ or V1 (control) and then performed three tasks in which they aimed to deceive another participant to get monetary rewards. In one of the three tasks, we found a significant decrease in a rate of successful deception when rTPJ was stimulated, indicating that neural enhancement of rTPJ caused poorer (not better) deceptive performances. Our results suggest that, in some tasks involving selfish (money-motivated) lying, neural processing in rTPJ does not contribute to successful deception through the metalizing ability. Rather, it would be related to the self-monitoring of morally-unacceptable behaviors (lying). The neural enhancement of rTPJ therefore increased the psychological resistance to lying, resulting in poorer deceptive performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuki Noguchi
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Humanities, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan.
| | - Rei Oizumi
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Humanities, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
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18
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Hsu JS, Wang PW, Ko CH, Hsieh TJ, Chen CY, Yen JY. Altered brain correlates of response inhibition and error processing in females with obesity and sweet food addiction: A functional magnetic imaging study. Obes Res Clin Pract 2017; 11:677-686. [PMID: 28552670 DOI: 10.1016/j.orcp.2017.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impulsivity and brain correlates of response inhibition and error processing among females with obesity and sweet food addiction (O & SFA). METHODS We evaluated the response inhibition and error processing by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in subjects with O & SFA and controls. Twenty females with O & SFA and 20 controls were recruited. All subjects performed the event-related designed Go/No-go task under fMRI and completed questionnaires related to food craving and impulsivity. RESULTS The O & SFA group exhibited a higher score for impulsivity than did the control group. The O & SFA also exhibited lower brain activation when processing response inhibition over the right rolandic operculum and thalamus than controls. Both O & SFA and control groups exhibited activation of the insula and caudate during error processing. The activation over the left insula, precuneus, and bilateral putamen were higher in the subjects with O & SFA than for those in the control group. CONCLUSION Our results support the fact that the fronto-striatal network is involved in response inhibition, and the caudate and insula contributes to error processing. Furthermore, women with O & SFA have impaired rolandic operculum when processing response inhibition and have greater insular and putamen activation in maintain their error processing function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Sheng Hsu
- Department of Medical Imaging, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Peng-Wei Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hung Ko
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Municipal Hsiao-Kang Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tsyh-Jyi Hsieh
- Department of Radiology, Chi-Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chiao-Yun Chen
- Department of Medical Imaging, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ju-Yu Yen
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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19
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Nahari T, Breska A, Elber L, Klein Selle N, Ben-Shakhar G. The External Validity of the Concealed Information Test: The Effect of Choosing to Commit a Mock Crime. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tal Nahari
- Department of Psychology; Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem Israel
| | - Assaf Breska
- Department of Psychology; Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem Israel
| | - Lotem Elber
- Department of Psychology; Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem Israel
| | - Nathalie Klein Selle
- Department of Psychology; Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Jerusalem Israel
- Department of Clinical Psychology; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
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20
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Mapping the small-world properties of brain networks in deception with functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:25297. [PMID: 27126145 PMCID: PMC4850450 DOI: 10.1038/srep25297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Deception is not a rare occurrence among human behaviors; however, the present brain mapping techniques are insufficient to reveal the neural mechanism of deception under spontaneous or controlled conditions. Interestingly, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has emerged as a highly promising neuroimaging technique that enables continuous and noninvasive monitoring of changes in blood oxygenation and blood volume in the human brain. In this study, fNIRS was used in combination with complex network theory to extract the attribute features of the functional brain networks underling deception in subjects exhibiting spontaneous or controlled behaviors. Our findings revealed that the small-world networks of the subjects engaged in spontaneous behaviors exhibited greater clustering coefficients, shorter average path lengths, greater average node degrees, and stronger randomness compared with those of subjects engaged in control behaviors. Consequently, we suggest that small-world network topology is capable of distinguishing well between spontaneous and controlled deceptions.
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21
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Chen ZX, Xue L, Liang CY, Wang LL, Mei W, Zhang Q, Zhao H. Specific marker of feigned memory impairment: The activation of left superior frontal gyrus. J Forensic Leg Med 2015; 36:164-71. [PMID: 26479324 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2015.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Faking memory impairment means normal people complain lots of memory problems without organic damage in forensic assessments. Using alternative forced-choice paradigm, containing digital or autobiographical information, previous neuroimaging studies have indicated that faking memory impairment could cause the activation in the prefrontal and parietal regions, and might involve a fronto-parietal-subcortical circuit. However, it is still unclear whether different memory types have influence on faking or not. Since different memory types, such as long-term memory (LTM) and short-term memory (STM), were found supported by different brain areas, we hypothesized that feigned STM or LTM impairment had distinct neural activation mapping. Besides that, some common neural correlates may act as the general characteristic of feigned memory impairment. To verify this hypothesis, the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) combined with an alternative word forced-choice paradigm were used in this study. A total of 10 right-handed participants, in this study, had to perform both STW and LTM tasks respectively under answering correctly, answering randomly and feigned memory impairment conditions. Our results indicated that the activation of the left superior frontal gyrus and the left medial frontal gyrus was associated with feigned LTM impairment, whereas the left superior frontal gyrus, the left precuneus and the right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were highly activated while feigning STM impairment. Furthermore, an overlapping was found in the left superior frontal gyrus, and it suggested that the activity of the left superior frontal gyrus might be acting as a specific marker of feigned memory impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Xiang Chen
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Li Xue
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Chun-Yu Liang
- Department of Radiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Li-Li Wang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Mei
- Department of Radiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Mental Health Center, Medical College, Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Hu Zhao
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
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22
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Bereczkei T, Papp P, Kincses P, Bodrogi B, Perlaki G, Orsi G, Deak A. The neural basis of the Machiavellians’ decision making in fair and unfair situations. Brain Cogn 2015; 98:53-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2015.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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23
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Bigler ED. Effort, symptom validity testing, performance validity testing and traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2014; 28:1623-38. [PMID: 25215453 PMCID: PMC4673569 DOI: 10.3109/02699052.2014.947627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To understand the neurocognitive effects of brain injury, valid neuropsychological test findings are paramount. REVIEW This review examines the research on what has been referred to a symptom validity testing (SVT). Above a designated cut-score signifies a 'passing' SVT performance which is likely the best indicator of valid neuropsychological test findings. Likewise, substantially below cut-point performance that nears chance or is at chance signifies invalid test performance. Significantly below chance is the sine qua non neuropsychological indicator for malingering. However, the interpretative problems with SVT performance below the cut-point yet far above chance are substantial, as pointed out in this review. This intermediate, border-zone performance on SVT measures is where substantial interpretative challenges exist. Case studies are used to highlight the many areas where additional research is needed. Historical perspectives are reviewed along with the neurobiology of effort. Reasons why performance validity testing (PVT) may be better than the SVT term are reviewed. CONCLUSIONS Advances in neuroimaging techniques may be key in better understanding the meaning of border zone SVT failure. The review demonstrates the problems with rigidity in interpretation with established cut-scores. A better understanding of how certain types of neurological, neuropsychiatric and/or even test conditions may affect SVT performance is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin D. Bigler
- Department of Psychology
- Neuroscience Center
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research Facility, Brigham Young University
Provo, UTUSA
- Department of Psychiatry
- The Brain Institute of Utah, University of Utah
Salt Lake City, UTUSA
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24
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Abe N, Fujii T, Ito A, Ueno A, Koseki Y, Hashimoto R, Hayashi A, Mugikura S, Takahashi S, Mori E. The neural basis of dishonest decisions that serve to harm or help the target. Brain Cogn 2014; 90:41-9. [PMID: 24983819 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2014.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study to elucidate the neurocognitive mechanisms of harmful and helpful dishonest decisions. During scanning, the subjects read scenarios concerning events that could occur in real-life situations and were asked to decide whether to tell a lie as though they were experiencing those events. Half of the scenarios consisted of harmful stories in which the dishonest decisions could be regarded as bad lies, and the other half consisted of helpful stories in which the dishonest decisions could be regarded as good lies. In contrast to the control decision-making task, we found that the decision-making tasks that involved honesty or dishonesty recruited a network of brain regions that included the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. In the harmful stories, the right temporoparietal junction and the right medial frontal cortex were activated when the subjects made dishonest decisions compared with honest decisions. No region discriminated between the honest and dishonest decisions made in the helpful stories. These preliminary findings suggest that the neural basis of dishonest decisions is modulated by whether the lying serves to harm or help the target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhito Abe
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.
| | - Toshikatsu Fujii
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ayahito Ito
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Aya Ueno
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yuta Koseki
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ryusaku Hashimoto
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Akiko Hayashi
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shunji Mugikura
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shoki Takahashi
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Etsuro Mori
- Department of Behavioral Neurology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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