COVID-19 vaccines and a perspective on Africa

Conservation of HLA Spike Protein Epitopes Supports T Cell Cross-Protection in SARS-CoV-2 Vaccinated Individuals against the Potentially Zoonotic Coronavirus Khosta-2

Heterologous vaccines, which induce immunity against several related pathogens, can be a very useful and rapid way to deal with new pandemics. In this study, the potential impact of licensed COVID-19 vaccines on cytotoxic and helper cell immune responses against Khosta-2, a novel sarbecovirus that productively infects human cells, was analyzed for the 567 and 41 most common HLA class I and II alleles, respectively. Computational predictions indicated that most of these 608 alleles, covering more than 90% of the human population, contain sufficient fully conserved T-cell epitopes between the Khosta-2 and SARS-CoV-2 spike-in proteins. Ninety percent of these fully conserved peptides for class I and 93% for class II HLA molecules were verified as epitopes recognized by CD8+ or CD4+ T lymphocytes, respectively. These results show a very high correlation between bioinformatic prediction and experimental assays, which strongly validates this study. This immunoinformatics analysis allowed a broader assessment of the alleles that recognize these peptides, a global approach at the population level that is not possible with experimental assays. In summary, these findings suggest that both cytotoxic and helper cell immune protection elicited by currently licensed COVID-19 vaccines should be effective against Khosta-2 virus infection. Finally, by being rapidly adaptable to future coronavirus pandemics, this study has potential public health implications.

Sustained S-IgG and S-IgA antibodies to Moderna's mRNA-1273 vaccine in a Sub-Saharan African cohort suggests need for booster timing reconsiderations

Introduction

This study sought to elucidate the long-term antibody responses to the Moderna mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine within a Ugandan cohort, aiming to contribute to the sparse data on m-RNA vaccine immunogenicity in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

We tracked the development and persistence of the elicited antibodies in 19 participants aged 18 to 67, who received two doses of the mRNA-1273 vaccine. A validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to quantify SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG, IgM, and IgA antibodies against the spike (S) and nucleoproteins (N). The study's temporal scope extended from the baseline to one year, capturing immediate and long-term immune responses. Statistical analyses were performed using the Wilcoxon test to evaluate changes in antibody levels across predetermined intervals with the Hochberg correction for multiple comparisons.

Results

Our results showed a significant initial rise in spike-directed IgG (S-IgG) and spike-directed IgA (S-IgA) levels, which remained elevated for the duration of the study. The S-IgG concentrations peaked 14 days afterboosting, while spike-directed IgM (S-IgM) levels were transient, aligning with their early response role. Notably, post-booster antibody concentrations did not significantly change. Prior S-IgG status influenced the post-priming S-IgA dynamics, with baseline S-IgG positive individuals maintaining higher S-IgA responses, a difference that did not reach statistical difference post-boost. Three instances of breakthrough infections: two among participants who exhibited baseline seropositivity for S-IgG, and one in a participant initially seronegative for S-IgG.

Discussion

In conclusion, the mRNA-1273 vaccine elicited robust and persistent S-IgG and S-IgA antibody responses, particularly after the first dose, indicating potential for long-term immunity. Prior viral exposure enhances post-vaccination S-IgA responses compared to naive individuals, which aligned with the prior-naïve, post-boost. The stable antibody levels observed post-booster dose, remaining high over an extended period, with no significant secondary rise, and no difference by baseline exposure, suggest that initial vaccination may sufficiently prime the immune system for prolonged protection in this population, allowing for potential to delay booster schedules as antibody responses remained high at the time of boosting. This finding calls for a reassessment of the booster dose scheduling in this demographic.

Olawoye I, Akano K, Okolie J, Eromon P, Olaitan P, Olagunoye A, Adebayo I, Adebayo V, Babalola E, Abioye O, Ajayi N, Ogah E, Ukwaja K, Okoro S, Oje O, Kingsley OC, Eke M, Onyia V, Achonduh-Atijegbe O, Ewah FE, Obasi M, Igwe V, Ayodeji O, Chukwuyem A, Owhin S, Oyejide N, Abah S, Ingbian W, Osoba M, Alebiosu A, Nadesalingam A, Aguinam ET, Carnell G, Krause N, Chan A, George C, Kinsley R, Tonks P, Temperton N, Heeney J, Happi C. Immunological insights into COVID-19 in Southern Nigeria

Introduction

One of the unexpected outcomes of the COVID-19 pandemic was the relatively low levels of morbidity and mortality in Africa compared to the rest of the world. Nigeria, Africa's most populous nation, accounted for less than 0.01% of the global COVID-19 fatalities. The factors responsible for Nigeria's relatively low loss of life due to COVID-19 are unknown. Also, the correlates of protective immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and the impact of pre-existing immunity on the outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa are yet to be elucidated. Here, we evaluated the natural and vaccine-induced immune responses from vaccinated, non-vaccinated and convalescent individuals in Southern Nigeria throughout the three waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria. We also examined the pre-existing immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 from samples collected prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

We used spike RBD and N- IgG antibody ELISA to measure binding antibody responses, SARS-CoV-2 pseudotype assay protocol expressing the spike protein of different variants (D614G, Delta, Beta, Omicron BA1) to measure neutralizing antibody responses and nucleoprotein (N) and spike (S1, S2) direct ex vivo interferon gamma (IFNγ) T cell ELISpot to measure T cell responses.

Result

Our study demonstrated a similar magnitude of both binding (N-IgG (74% and 62%), S-RBD IgG (70% and 53%) and neutralizing (D614G (49% and 29%), Delta (56% and 47%), Beta (48% and 24%), Omicron BA1 (41% and 21%)) antibody responses from symptomatic and asymptomatic survivors in Nigeria. A similar magnitude was also seen among vaccinated participants. Interestingly, we revealed the presence of preexisting binding antibodies (N-IgG (60%) and S-RBD IgG (44%)) but no neutralizing antibodies from samples collected prior to the pandemic.

Discussion

These findings revealed that both vaccinated, non-vaccinated and convalescent individuals in Southern Nigeria make similar magnitude of both binding and cross-reactive neutralizing antibody responses. It supported the presence of preexisting binding antibody responses among some Nigerians prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lastly, hybrid immunity and heterologous vaccine boosting induced the strongest binding and broadly neutralizing antibody responses compared to vaccine or infection-acquired immunity alone.

Vaccine inequity: a threat to Africa's recovery from COVID-19

BACKGROUND

Vaccine inequity is a reality facing the Sub-Saharan Africa region as vaccine nationalism from high-income countries (HICs) leads to limited access to the lifesaving vaccines needed to end the pandemic. In Africa, a significant portion of the population has yet to be vaccinated against Covid-19; however, the barriers to accessing such vaccines, including capacity challenges, still persist despite the implementation of the COVAX facility meant to support the lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to boost vaccination.

METHODS

This study involved a systemic narrative review where literature search was conducted using the NCBI's PMC and BMC databases based on defined keywords. Three authors were involved in the literature search and consensus was applied to settle disagreements and validate the findings.

RESULTS

In this systematic narrative review, we report that vaccine nationalism remains a challenge for LMICs as HICs still hoard vaccines and even bypass COVAX to procure doses directly from the manufacturers. Factors that promote vaccine hesitancy in Africa include misinformation regarding the Covid-19 vaccine, a lack of trust in politicians and the pharmaceutical industry, and concerns about vaccine safety and efficacy. The policies implemented to enhance vaccine coverage in Africa, such as mandates, community engagement, and partnerships, all seek to promote equity of vaccination and ending Covid-19.

CONCLUSION

Covid-19 vaccine inequity persists and contributes to prolonged pandemic in LMICs. In response, African governments have taken certain measures to enhance vaccine uptake but more needs to be done to address resistance to vaccines.