Self-compassion predicted joint trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic: A five-wave longitudinal study on Chinese college students

Combined effect of compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding on Chinese college students' mental health during the initial wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: a response surface analysis

Background: The initial wave of the COVID-19 pandemic significantly deteriorated mental health, especially among college students. Self-compassion has demonstrated benefits for psychological outcomes such as depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), and posttraumatic growth (PTG). Notably, existing literature suggests that the protective and vulnerable aspects within the Self-Compassion Scale, namely, compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding (CSR and USR), can coexist within individuals and influence their mental health through various coexisting patterns. However, this process has not been sufficiently explored.Objective: This study aimed to explore the combined effects of CSR and USR on college students' depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, PTSS, and PTG during the initial wave of the pandemic.Method: In this cross-sectional study, 4450 Chinese college students (51.9% females, Mage = 20.58 years, SD = 1.49) completed self-report measures amid the COVID-19 pandemic's initial wave in 2020. Response surface analyses were utilised to investigate the combined effects of CSR and USR.Results: Simultaneously increased CSR and USR were associated with a slight increase in depressive symptoms, PTSS, and life satisfaction, but a substantial increase in PTG. Conversely, increased CSR and decreased USR were associated with a considerable decrease in depressive symptoms and PTSS, a significant increase in life satisfaction, and a moderate increase in PTG.Conclusions: CSR and USR demonstrated protective and vulnerable impacts, respectively. It is imperative to analyse their combined effects as an interactive system and consider the specific characteristics of different psychological responses.

Identifying patterns of multidimensional self-compassion in Chinese young adults: implications for longitudinal mental health outcomes during the pandemic

BACKGROUND

Self-compassion (SC), reflecting self-attitude and self-connectedness, has proven to be a modifiable factor in promoting mental health outcomes. Increasingly, SC is recognized as a multidimensional construct consisting of six dimensions, rather than a single dimension.

OBJECTIVES

First, this study adopted a person-centered approach to explore profiles of SC dimensions in Chinese young adults. Second, the study examined the predictive effects of SC profiles on mental health outcomes.

METHODS

In February 2020, young adults (N = 1164) were invited to complete the 26-item Neff's Self-Compassion Scale online. Three months later, the same subjects (N = 1099) reported their levels of depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and posttraumatic growth (PTG).

RESULTS

After controlling for retrospective ACEs, four classes best characterized the profiles: self-compassionate (26.7%, N = 294), self-uncompassionate (12.3%, N = 135), average (55.9%, N = 614), and detached groups (5.1%, N = 56). Young adults in the self-compassionate group adjusted the best (with the highest level of PTG and the lowest levels of depressive and PTSD symptoms). Adults in the self-uncompassionate group demonstrated the poorest mental health outcomes (with the lowest level of PTG and the highest levels of depressive and PTSD symptoms). Young adults in the average group obtained more PTG than adults in the detached group (p < .01), but did not differ significantly in depressive and PTSD symptoms (p > .05).

CONCLUSION

The compassionate profile is the most adaptable for young adults among all groups. This study highlights the limitations of representing the relative balance of SC with a composite score.

Changes in emotion regulation strategies during the pandemic: prospective pathways to adolescent depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

Emotion regulation (ER) is considered central in adolescent psychopathology, and ER strategies may change during challenging times, such as a global pandemic. Despite this, there remains a limited understanding of individual differences in ER mechanisms and their associations with psychopathology. This study examined whether and how cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, and self-compassion changed over COVID-19 and how these changes uniquely predicted adolescents' depressive symptoms.

METHODS

A total of 2,411 adolescents (58.6% females; Mage = 18.51, SD = 0.80) completed the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire, the Self-compassion Scale, and the Symptom Checklist-90 before COVID-19 (in 2019) and during COVID-19 (in 2020). The predictive associations between each ER strategy and depressive symptoms were tested with latent change score models.

RESULTS

Adolescents' use of expressive suppression and self-compassion strategies both increased during COVID-19. More increases in expressive suppression predicted more depressive symptoms, whereas more increases in self-compassion predicted fewer depressive symptoms. Although, on average, cognitive reappraisal did not change, it did show significant variations within the sample - increases (vs. decreases) in cognitive appraisal predicted fewer depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The study indicates how adolescents' ER strategies changed during the unprecedented global pandemic. It underscores protective roles of increased cognitive reappraisal and self-compassion, as well as the adverse consequence of heightened expressive suppression on adolescents' depressive symptoms. Findings offer insights for targeted interventions aimed at addressing specific ER strategies.

Longitudinal associations between self-compassion, depression, and suicidal ideation in adolescent boys and girls

This study aims to elucidate associations among self-compassion, depression, and suicidal ideation, particularly with respect to gender differences. Using a multigroup cross-lagged panel model, we conducted a longitudinal evaluation of 424 Chinese adolescents (55.85% boys; Mage = 18.02, SD = 0.73 at baseline). Our findings indicated that suicidal ideation at T1 positively predicted depression 6 months later, while negatively predicted self-compassion. However, self-compassion negatively predicted depression 6 months later, specifically in boys, but not in girls. Furthermore, self-compassion significantly mediated the relationship between suicidal ideation at T1 and depression at T2. This study helps to uncover the underlying relationships between self-compassion, depression, and suicidal ideation, and also provide a detailed insight into the differential effects of self-compassion on depression among boys and girls.

Latent classes of symptom trajectories among major depressive disorder patients in China

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to understand the long-term symptom trajectories of Chinese patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) using piecewise latent growth modeling and growth mixture modeling. The investigation also aimed to identify the baseline characteristics indicative of poorer treatment outcomes.

METHODS

A total of 558 outpatients with MDD were assessed using a sequence of surveys. The Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA), and Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS) Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) were used to evaluate baseline depression, anxiety, and cognitive function. Depression symptom severity was subsequently measured at the 1-month, 2-month, 6-month, 1-year, and 2-year follow-ups.

RESULTS

Results indicated three depressive symptomology trajectories, including (a) severe, improving class (12.72 %), (b) partially responding, later deteriorating class (6.09 %), and (c) moderate, improving class (81.18 %). Logistic regression analyses showed that a history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) increased the odds of belonging to the partially responding, later deteriorating class, whereas higher baseline depression increased the odds of belonging to the severe, improving class compared to the moderate, improving class. Patients who experienced less depression relief during the first month of treatment had a lower probability of belonging to the moderate, improving class.

LIMITATIONS

Participant attrition in this study may have inflated the estimated rate of treatment-resistant patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The burden of CVD and poorer initial treatment response are plausible risk factors for poorer treatment outcomes, highlighting targets for intervention in Chinese MDD patients.

The role of self-compassion in loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic: a group-based trajectory modelling approach

Research has suggested an increase in loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic, but much of this work has been cross-sectional, making causal inferences difficult. In the present research, we employed a longitudinal design to identify loneliness trajectories within a period of twelve months during the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium (N = 2106). We were particularly interested in the potential protective role of self-compassion in these temporal dynamics. Using a group-based trajectory modelling approach, we identified trajectory groups of individuals following low (11.0%), moderate-low (22.4%), moderate (25.7%), moderate-high (31.3%), and high (9.6%) levels of loneliness. Findings indicated that younger people, women, and individuals with poor quality relationships, high levels of health anxiety, and stress related to COVID-19, all had a higher probability of belonging to the highest loneliness trajectory groups. Importantly, we also found that people high in two of the three facets of self-compassion (self-kindness and common humanity) had a lower probability of belonging to the highest loneliness trajectory groups. Ultimately, we demonstrated that trajectory groups reflecting higher levels of loneliness were associated with lower life satisfaction and greater depressive symptoms. We discuss the possibility that increasing self-compassion may be used to promote better mental health in similarly challenging situations.

Trajectories of self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness during the COVID-19 pandemic: A person-oriented multi-trajectory approach

The COVID-19 pandemic has produced unprecedented changes in the lives of many people. Although research has documented associations between concerns related to COVID-19 and poor mental health indicators, fewer studies have focused on positive factors that could help people better cope with this stressful social context. To fill this gap, the present research investigated the trajectories of self-compassion facets in times of dramatic social change. Using a longitudinal research design, we described the trajectories of self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness during the first eight months of the COVID-19 pandemic, in a representative sample of Canadian adults (N = 3617). Relying on a multi-trajectory group-based approach, we identified clusters of individuals following persistently low (4.0%), moderate-low (39.3%), moderate-high (46.7%), and high (10.0%) levels of self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. Interestingly, we found that compassionate self-responding trajectories were mainly stable over time with minor fluctuations for some groups of individuals, in line with the epidemiological situation. In terms of covariates, we observed that older women were more likely to follow trajectories of high compassionate self-responding, as compared to the other age and gender groups. In terms of mental health indicators, we demonstrated that trajectory groups with high levels of compassionate self-responding were associated with greater life satisfaction, more happiness, better sleep quality, higher sleep quantity, and fewer negative emotions, as compared to lower trajectory groups. The results supported the idea that self-compassion during the COVID-19 pandemic could have favored better mental health indicators and could possibly be promoted as a psychological intervention in the general population.

Independent and joint trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms among Chinese male sailors throughout a prolonged non-24-h rotating shift schedule at sea: a parallel-process growth mixture modeling approach

BACKGROUND

The predictive and protective effect of hardiness on mental health remains unclear among shift workers on non-24-h working schedules. The present study aimed to investigate the independent and joint trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms and the role of hardiness during a prolonged period of non-24-h shift working schedule.

METHODS

Four hundred nine Chinese male sailors (working on 18-h watchstanding schedule) were recruited and completed all 5-wave tests through online questionnaires (at Day 1, 14, 28, 42, 55, respectively) during a 55-day sailing. The questionnaires included sociodemographic variables, hardiness, depression and anxiety symptoms. Independent and joint trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms were estimated by latent growth mixture models. The effect of hardiness on trajectories was examined by logistic regression models.

RESULTS

2 and 3 latent trajectories were identified for depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively. Based on initial levels and development trends, 3 distinct joint trajectories of depression and anxiety were identifed and named as: "Low-Inverted U" group (73.6%), "Moderate-Deterioration" group (6.9%), and "High-Stable" group (9.5%). Sailors with higher levels of hardiness were more likely to follow the "Low-Inverted U" trajectory of depression and anxiety symptoms (all p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

There existed individual differences in the trajectories of depression and anxiety. Hardiness may have a protective effect that can prevent and alleviate depression and anxiety symptoms. Therefore, hardiness-based intervention programs are encouraged among the shift workers on non-24-h working and rest schedules.

Perceived stress mediates the association between perceived control and emotional distress: The moderating role of psychological resources and sex differences

Studies have confirmed that perceived control is strongly negatively correlated with emotional distress. However, few studies have explored whether perceived stress plays a potential mediating role in this relationship and whether the association between perceived stress and emotional distress is moderated by psychological resources, such as self-esteem and social support. Furthermore, it is unclear whether there are sex differences in the moderating effects of psychological resources on emotional distress. A total of 951 healthy adults (51.84% females) from different regions of mainland China participated in the study and completed questionnaires in early December 2022, when prevention and control policies concerning COVID-19 in China underwent rapid change. Perceived control negatively correlated with emotional distress, and perceived stress mediated the association between perceived control and emotional distress. In addition, both internal (i.e., self-esteem) and external psychological resources (i.e., social support) moderated the association between perceived stress and emotional distress, and the positive correlation between perceived stress and emotional distress was higher in individuals with low social support (and self-esteem) than in those with high social support (and self-esteem). We found sex differences in the moderating roles of psychological resources. Specifically, self-esteem had a moderating effect on both men and women, whereas social support had a moderating effect only on women. These findings improve understanding of the relationship between perceived control and emotional distress and suggest that intervention programs should be designed to target men and women differently.

Psychosocial predictors of trajectories of mental health distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: A four-wave panel study

Previous research suggested that during the COVID-19 pandemic, mental distress did not affect all people equally. This longitudinal study aims to examine joint trajectories of depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms in a sample of Italian adults during the pandemic, and to identify psychosocial predictors of distress states. We analyzed four-wave panel data from 3,931 adults who had received assessments of depressive, anxiety and stress symptoms between April 2020 and May 2021. Trajectories of individual psychological distress were identified by Latent Class Growth Analysis (LCGA) with parallel processes, and multinomial regression models were conducted to identify baseline predictors. Parallel process LCGA identified three joint trajectory classes for depression, anxiety and stress symptoms. Most individuals (54%) showed a resilient trajectory. However, two subgroups showed vulnerable joint trajectories for depression, anxiety and stress. Expressive suppression, intolerance to uncertainty, and fear of COVID-19 were risk characteristics associated with vulnerable trajectories for mental health distress. Moreover, vulnerability to mental health distress was higher in females, younger age groups and those unemployed during the first lockdown. Findings support the fact that group heterogeneity could be detected in the trajectories of mental health distress during the pandemic and it may help to identify subgroups at risk of worsening states.

Initial risk factors, self-compassion trajectories, and well-being outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic: A person-centered approach

Introduction

We investigated whether initial risk classes and heterogeneous trajectories of self-compassion over the course of the pandemic may impact well-being outcomes 1 year into the pandemic.

Methods

A large, representative sample of Canadians (N = 3,613; 50.6% women) was sampled longitudinally over 11 waves (April 2020-April 2021), using a rolling cross-sectional survey design. Analyses were conducted in three steps: (1) latent class analysis to identify heterogeneity in risk factors (sociodemographic, cognitive-personality, health-related) early in the pandemic, (2) latent class growth analysis (LCGA) to identify longitudinal self-compassion trajectories, and (3) GLM to examine effects of risk factor classes and self-compassion trajectories, as well as their interaction, on later well-being (mental health, perceived control, life satisfaction).

Results and Discussion

Four risk factor classes emerged, with 50.9% of participants experiencing low risk, 14.3% experiencing multiple risks, 20.8% experiencing Cognitive-Personality and Health risks, and 14.0% experiencing sociodemographic and Cognitive-Personality risks. Four self-compassion trajectories also emerged, with 47.7% of participants experiencing moderate-high self-compassion that decreased then stabilized, 32.0% experiencing moderate self-compassion that decreased then stabilized, 17.3% experiencing high and stable self-compassion across time, and 3.0% experiencing low and decreasing self-compassion. Comparisons of well-being outcomes 1 year post-pandemic indicated that higher levels of self-compassion over time may protect against the impact of initial risk on well-being outcomes. Further work is still needed on heterogeneity in experiences of risk and protective factors during stressful life events.