A rice-based soluble form of a murine TNF-specific llama variable domain of heavy-chain antibody suppresses collagen-induced arthritis in mice

Expression of nanobodies in Arabidopsis thaliana strengthens the absorption capacity of triclosan from growth media

Triclosan (TCS) is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial disinfectant widely used in pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Due to the extensive usage of PPCPs, TCS inevitably entered the environment and pose harmful effects on the ecosystem. Phytoremediation is an attractive approach to remove TCS from the environment. In this study, a gene encoding the anti-TCS nanobody was transformed into Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana) to enhance the absorption capacity of TCS. Nanobodies are small antibody fragments (ca. 15 kDa) derived from the variable domain of camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies. We constructed two transgenic lines, the T-S-C line with nanobody expression throughout the plant and the T-S-P line with nanobody expression dominant in the roots, were constructed. The expression of nanobodies in A. thaliana alleviated the phytotoxicity of TCS. T-S-C and T-S-P exhibited significantly stronger tolerance to TCS toxicity than the wild type (WT), in either a solid medium system or a hydroponics system. Under the stress of TCS, the seedlings of both transgenic plants exhibited an increase in root length and fresh weight compared to those of WT. Moreover, in the presence of TCS, the activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, and glutathione in transgenic plants were higher than those in WT. The concentration of TCS absorbed into the T-S-C and T-S-P plants from the solid medium increased by 50.0% and 24.1%, and from the hydroponics system increased by 55.6% and 38.0%, respectively, compared to those absorbed by WT. This study provides a proof of principle that transforming nanobodies into plants represents a novel technology to improve the efficiency of phytoremediation for environmental pollutants.

Food-Borne Biotoxin Neutralization in Vivo by Nanobodies: Current Status and Prospects

Food-borne biotoxins from microbes, plants, or animals contaminate unclean, spoiled, and rotten foods, posing significant health risks. Neutralizing such toxins is vital for human health, especially after food poisoning. Nanobodies (Nbs), a type of single-domain antibodies derived from the genetic cloning of a variable domain of heavy chain antibodies (VHHs) in camels, offer unique advantages in toxin neutralization. Their small size, high stability, and precise binding enable effective neutralization. The use of Nbs in neutralizing food-borne biotoxins offers numerous benefits, and their genetic malleability allows tailored optimization for diverse toxins. As nanotechnology continues to evolve and improve, Nbs are poised to become increasingly efficient and safer tools for toxin neutralization, playing a pivotal role in safeguarding human health and environmental safety. This review not only highlights the efficacy of these agents in neutralizing toxins but also proposes innovative solutions to address their current challenges. It lays a solid foundation for their further development in this crucial field and propels their commercial application, thereby contributing significantly to advancements in this domain.

Lactobacilli as a Vector for Delivery of Nanobodies against Norovirus Infection

Passive administration of neutralizing antibodies (Abs) is an attractive strategy for the control of gastrointestinal infections. However, an unanswered practical concern is the need to assure the stability of sufficient amounts of orally administered neutralizing Abs against intestinal pathogens (e.g., norovirus) in the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract. To this end, we expressed a single-domain Ab (VHH, nanobody) against norovirus on the cell surface of Lactobacillus, a natural and beneficial commensal component of the gut microbiome. First, we used intestinal epithelial cells generated from human induced pluripotent stem cells to confirm that VHH 1E4 showed neutralizing activity against GII.17 norovirus. We then expressed VHH 1E4 as a cell-wall-anchored form in Lactobacillus paracasei BL23. Flow cytometry confirmed the expression of VHH 1E4 on the surface of lactobacilli, and L. paracasei that expressed VHH 1E4 inhibited the replication of GII.17 norovirus in vitro. We then orally administered VHH 1E4-expressing L. paracasei BL23 to germ-free BALB/c mice and confirmed the presence of lactobacilli with neutralizing activity in the intestine for at least 10 days after administration. Thus, cell-wall-anchored VHH-displaying lactobacilli are attractive oral nanobody deliver vectors for passive immunization against norovirus infection.

A Nanobody-Based Immunoassay for Detection of Ustilaginoidins in Rice Samples

Ustilaginoidins are a class of bis-naphtho-γ-pyrone mycotoxins produced by the pathogen Villosiclava virens of rice false smut, which has recently become one of the most devastating diseases in rice-growing regions worldwide. In this research, the nanobody phage display library was established after an alpaca was immunized with the hemiustilaginoidin F-hapten coupled with bovine serum albumin (BSA). Heterologous antigen selection and combing trypsin with competition alternant elution methods were performed for nanobody screening. Two nanobodies, namely, Nb-B15 and Nb–C21, were selected for the establishment of indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ic-ELISAs). For Nb–B15 and Nb-C21, their IC₅₀ values were 11.86 μg/mL and 11.22 μg/mL, and the detection ranges were at 3.41–19.98 μg/mL and 1.17–32.13 μg/mL, respectively. Two nanobodies had a broad spectrum to quantify the contents of total ustilaginoidins in rice samples according to cross-reactivity. The recognition mechanisms of Nb-B15 and Nb-C21 against ustilaginoidin A were elucidated by molecular modeling and docking. The key amino acid sites for the binding of Nb–B15 or Nb–C21 to ustilaginoidin A were mainly located in the FR1 and CDR1 regions. As Nb-B15 was superior to Nb–C21 in the aspects of protein expression, ELISA titer, and tolerance to organic solvents, it was selected for application in the detection of actual contaminated rice samples. The total ustilaginoidin contents of rice samples were analyzed by Nb–B15-based ic–ELISA and HPLC-DAD, between which the results were found to be consistent. The developed immunoassay based on the nanobody from the alpaca can be employed as a rapid and effective method for detection of total utilaginoidins in contaminated rice samples.

A review of plant-based expression systems as a platform for single-domain recombinant antibody production

Monoclonal antibodies have contributed to improving the treatment of several diseases. However, limitations related to pharmacokinetic parameters and production costs have instigated the search for alternative products. Camelids produce functional immunoglobulins G devoid of light chains and CH1 domains, in which the antigenic recognition site is formed by a single domain called VHH or nanobody. VHHs' small size and similarity to the human VH domain contribute to high tissue penetration and low immunogenicity. In addition, VHHs provide superior antigen recognition compared to human antibodies, better solubility and stability. Due to these characteristics and the possibility of obtaining gene-encoding VHHs, applications of this biological tool, whether as a monomer or in related recombinant constructs, have been reported. To ensure antibody efficacy and cost-effectiveness, strategies for their expression, either using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems, have been utilized. Plant-based expression systems are useful for VHH related constructs that require post-translational modifications. This system has exhibited versatility, low-cost upstream production, and safety. This article presents the main advances associated to the heterologous expression of VHHs in plant systems. Besides, we show insights related to the use of VHHs as a strategy for plant pathogen control and a tool for genomic manipulation in plant systems.

Development of Antibody-Fragment-Producing Rice for Neutralization of Human Norovirus

Human norovirus is the leading cause of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis in people of all ages worldwide. Currently, no licensed norovirus vaccine, pharmaceutical drug, or therapy is available for the control of norovirus infection. Here, we used a rice transgenic system, MucoRice, to produce a variable domain of a llama heavy-chain antibody fragment (VHH) specific for human norovirus (MucoRice-VHH). VHH is a small heat- and acid-stable protein that resembles a monoclonal antibody. Consequently, VHHs have become attractive and useful antibodies (Abs) for oral immunotherapy against intestinal infectious diseases. MucoRice-VHH constructs were generated at high yields in rice seeds by using an overexpression system with RNA interference to suppress the production of the major rice endogenous storage proteins. The average production levels of monomeric VHH (7C6) to GII.4 norovirus and heterodimeric VHH (7C6-1E4) to GII.4 and GII.17 noroviruses in rice seed were 0.54 and 0.28% (w/w), respectively, as phosphate buffered saline (PBS)-soluble VHHs. By using a human norovirus propagation system in human induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), we demonstrated the high neutralizing activity of MucoRice expressing monomeric VHH (7C6) against GII.4 norovirus and of heterodimeric VHH (7C6-1E4) against both GII.4 and GII.17 noroviruses. In addition, MucoRice-VHH (7C6-1E4) retained neutralizing activity even after heat treatment at 90°C for 20 min. These results build a fundamental platform for the continued development of MucoRice-VHH heterodimer as a candidate for oral immunotherapy and for prophylaxis against GII.4 and GII.17 noroviruses in not only healthy adults and children but also immunocompromised patients and the elderly.

A Heterodimeric Antibody Fragment for Passive Immunotherapy Against Norovirus Infection

Human noroviruses cause an estimated 685 million infections and 200 000 deaths annually worldwide. Although vaccines against GII.4 and GI.1 genotypes are under development, no information is available regarding vaccines or monoclonal antibodies to other noroviral genotypes. Here, we developed 2 variable-domain llama heavy-chain antibody fragment (VHHs) clones, 7C6 and 1E4, against GII.4 and GII.17 human noroviruses, respectively. Although 7C6 cross-reacted with virus-like particles (VLPs) of GII.17, GII.6, GII.3, and GII.4, it neutralized only GII.4 norovirus. In contrast, 1E4 reacted with and neutralized only GII.17 VLPs. Both VHHs blocked VLP binding to human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived intestinal epithelial cells and carbohydrate attachment factors. Using these 2 VHHs, we produced a heterodimeric VHH fragment that neutralized both GII.4 and GII.17 noroviruses. Because VHH fragments are heat- and acid-stable recombinant monoclonal antibodies, the heterodimer likely will be useful for oral immunotherapy and prophylaxis against GII.4 and GII.17 noroviruses in young, elderly, or immunocompromised persons.

Applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology

Present review summarizes the current applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology, including plant expression of nanobodies, plant biotechnological applications, nanobody-based immunodetection, and nanobody-mediated resistance against plant pathogens. Nanobodies (Nbs) are variable domains of heavy chain-only antibodies (HCAbs) isolated from camelids. In spite of their single domain structure, nanobodies display many unique features, such as small size, high stability, and cryptic epitopes accessibility, which make them ideal for sophisticated applications in plants and animals. In this review, we summarize the current applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology, focusing on nanobody expression in plants, plant biotechnological applications, determination of plant toxins and pathogens, and nanobody-mediated resistance against plant pathogens. Prospects and challenges of nanobody applications in plants are also discussed.

Production of BP178, a derivative of the synthetic antibacterial peptide BP100, in the rice seed endosperm

BACKGROUND

BP178 peptide is a synthetic BP100-magainin derivative possessing strong inhibitory activity against plant pathogenic bacteria, offering a great potential for future applications in plant protection and other fields. Here we report the production and recovery of a bioactive BP178 peptide using rice seeds as biofactories.

RESULTS

A synthetic gene encoding the BP178 peptide was prepared and introduced in rice plants. The gene was efficiently expressed in transgenic rice under the control of an endosperm-specific promoter. Among the three endosperm-specific rice promoters (Glutelin B1, Glutelin B4 or Globulin 1), best results were obtained when using the Globulin 1 promoter. The BP178 peptide accumulated in the seed endosperm and was easily recovered from rice seeds using a simple procedure with a yield of 21 μg/g. The transgene was stably inherited for at least three generations, and peptide accumulation remained stable during long term storage of transgenic seeds. The purified peptide showed in vitro activity against the bacterial plant pathogen Dickeya sp., the causal agent of the dark brown sheath rot of rice. Seedlings of transgenic events showed enhanced resistance to the fungal pathogen Fusarium verticillioides, supporting that the in planta produced peptide was biologically active.

CONCLUSIONS

The strategy developed in this work for the sustainable production of BP178 peptide using rice seeds as biofactories represents a promising system for future production of peptides for plant protection and possibly in other fields.

Recombinant antibody production evolves into multiple options aimed at yielding reagents suitable for application-specific needs

BACKGROUND

Antibodies have been a pillar of basic research, while their relevance in clinical diagnostics and therapy is constantly growing. Consequently, the production of both conventional and fragment antibodies constantly faces more demanding challenges for the improvement of their quantity and quality. The answer to such an increasing need has been the development of a wide array of formats and alternative production platforms. This review offers a critical comparison and evaluation of the different options to help the researchers interested in expressing recombinant antibodies in their choice.

RESULTS

Rather than the compilation of an exhaustive list of the recent publications in the field, this review intendeds to analyze the development of the most innovative or fast-growing strategies. These have been illustrated with some significant examples and, when possible, compared with the existing alternatives. Space has also been given to those solutions that might represent interesting opportunities or that investigate critical aspects of the production optimization but for which the available data as yet do not allow for a definitive judgment.

CONCLUSIONS

The take-home message is that there is a clear process of progressive diversification concerning the antibody expression platforms and an effort to yield directly application-adapted immune-reagents rather than generic naked antibodies that need further in vitro modification steps before becoming usable.

Extraction and downstream processing of plant-derived recombinant proteins

Plants offer the tantalizing prospect of low-cost automated manufacturing processes for biopharmaceutical proteins, but several challenges must be addressed before such goals are realized and the most significant hurdles are found during downstream processing (DSP). In contrast to the standardized microbial and mammalian cell platforms embraced by the biopharmaceutical industry, there are many different plant-based expression systems vying for attention, and those with the greatest potential to provide inexpensive biopharmaceuticals are also the ones with the most significant drawbacks in terms of DSP. This is because the most scalable plant systems are based on the expression of intracellular proteins in whole plants. The plant tissue must therefore be disrupted to extract the product, challenging the initial DSP steps with an unusually high load of both particulate and soluble contaminants. DSP platform technologies can accelerate and simplify process development, including centrifugation, filtration, flocculation, and integrated methods that combine solid-liquid separation, purification and concentration, such as aqueous two-phase separation systems. Protein tags can also facilitate these DSP steps, but they are difficult to transfer to a commercial environment and more generic, flexible and scalable strategies to separate target and host cell proteins are preferable, such as membrane technologies and heat/pH precipitation. In this context, clarified plant extracts behave similarly to the feed stream from microbes or mammalian cells and the corresponding purification methods can be applied, as long as they are adapted for plant-specific soluble contaminants such as the superabundant protein RuBisCO. Plant-derived pharmaceutical proteins cannot yet compete directly with established platforms but they are beginning to penetrate niche markets that allow the beneficial properties of plants to be exploited, such as the ability to produce 'biobetters' with tailored glycans, the ability to scale up production rapidly for emergency responses and the ability to produce commodity recombinant proteins on an agricultural scale.