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Parrasia S, Szabò I, Zoratti M, Biasutto L. Peptides as Pharmacological Carriers to the Brain: Promises, Shortcomings and Challenges. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:3700-3729. [PMID: 36174227 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) diseases are among the most difficult to treat, mainly because the vast majority of the drugs fail to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) or to reach the brain at concentrations adequate to exert a pharmacological activity. The obstacle posed by the BBB has led to the in-depth study of strategies allowing the brain delivery of CNS-active drugs. Among the most promising strategies is the use of peptides addressed to the BBB. Peptides are versatile molecules that can be used to decorate nanoparticles or can be conjugated to drugs, with either a stable link or as pro-drugs. They have been used to deliver to the brain both small molecules and proteins, with applications in diverse therapeutic areas such as brain cancers, neurodegenerative diseases and imaging. Peptides can be generally classified as receptor-targeted, recognizing membrane proteins expressed by the BBB microvessels (e.g., Angiopep2, CDX, and iRGD), "cell-penetrating peptides" (CPPs; e.g. TAT47-57, SynB1/3, and Penetratin), undergoing transcytosis through unspecific mechanisms, or those exploiting a mixed approach. The advantages of peptides have been extensively pointed out, but so far few studies have focused on the potential negative aspects. Indeed, despite having a generally good safety profile, some peptide conjugates may display toxicological characteristics distinct from those of the peptide itself, causing for instance antigenicity, cardiovascular alterations or hemolysis. Other shortcomings are the often brief lifetime in vivo, caused by the presence of peptidases, the vulnerability to endosomal/lysosomal degradation, and the frequently still insufficient attainable increase of brain drug levels, which remain below the therapeutically useful concentrations. The aim of this review is to analyze not only the successful and promising aspects of the use of peptides in brain targeting but also the problems posed by this strategy for drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Parrasia
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Ildikò Szabò
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Mario Zoratti
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Lucia Biasutto
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35131 Padova, Italy
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2
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Feng Y, Li Y, Shen PP, Wang B. Gene-Modified Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injury: a Promising Better Alternative Therapy. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2022; 18:2662-2682. [PMID: 35587330 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-022-10387-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Stem cell therapy holds great promise for the treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI), which can reverse neurodegeneration and promote tissue regeneration via its pluripotency and ability to secrete neurotrophic factors. Although various stem cell-based approaches have shown certain therapeutic effects when applied to the treatment of SCI, their clinical efficacies have been disappointing. Thus, it is an urgent need to further enhance the neurological benefits of stem cells through bioengineering strategies including genetic engineering. In this review, we summarize the progress of stem cell therapy for SCI and the prospect of genetically modified stem cells, focusing on the genome editing tools and functional molecules involved in SCI repair, trying to provide a deeper understanding of genetically modified stem cell therapy and more applicable clinical strategies for SCI repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yirui Feng
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yu Li
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ping-Ping Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and the Comprehensive Cancer Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Bin Wang
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
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3
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Kudruk S, Pottanam Chali S, Linard Matos AL, Bourque C, Dunker C, Gatsogiannis C, Ravoo BJ, Gerke V. Biodegradable and Dual-Responsive Polypeptide-Shelled Cyclodextrin-Containers for Intracellular Delivery of Membrane-Impermeable Cargo. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2100694. [PMID: 34278745 PMCID: PMC8456233 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202100694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The transport of membrane impermeable compounds into cells is a prerequisite for the efficient cellular delivery of hydrophilic and amphiphilic compounds and drugs. Transport into the cell's cytosolic compartment should ideally be controllable and it should involve biologically compatible and degradable vehicles. Addressing these challenges, nanocontainers based on cyclodextrin amphiphiles that are stabilized by a biodegradable peptide shell are developed and their potential to deliver fluorescently labeled cargo into human cells is analyzed. Host-guest mediated self-assembly of a thiol-containing short peptide or a cystamine-cross-linked polypeptide shell on cyclodextrin vesicles produce short peptide-shelled (SPSVss ) or polypeptide-shelled vesicles (PPSVss ), respectively, with redox-responsive and biodegradable features. Whereas SPSVss are permeable and less stable, PPSVss effectively encapsulate cargo and show a strictly regulated release of membrane impermeable cargo triggered by either reducing conditions or peptidase treatment. Live cell experiments reveal that the novel PPSVSS are readily internalized by primary human endothelial cells (human umbilical vein endothelial cells) and cervical cancer cells and that the reductive microenvironment of the cells' endosomes trigger release of the hydrophilic cargo into the cytosol. Thus, PPSVSS represent a highly efficient, biodegradable, and tunable system for overcoming the plasma membrane as a natural barrier for membrane-impermeable cargo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergej Kudruk
- Institute of Medical BiochemistryCenter for Molecular Biology of InflammationUniversity of MuensterVon‐Esmarch‐Str. 56Münster48149Germany
| | - Sharafudheen Pottanam Chali
- Center for Soft Nanoscience and Organic Chemistry InstituteUniversity of MuensterBusso Peus Straße 10Münster48149Germany
| | - Anna Livia Linard Matos
- Institute of Medical BiochemistryCenter for Molecular Biology of InflammationUniversity of MuensterVon‐Esmarch‐Str. 56Münster48149Germany
| | - Cole Bourque
- Center for Soft Nanoscience and Institute of Medical Physics and BiophysicsUniversity of MuensterBusso Peus Straße 10Münster48149Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto‐Hahn‐Straße 11Dortmund44227Germany
| | - Clara Dunker
- Institute of Medical BiochemistryCenter for Molecular Biology of InflammationUniversity of MuensterVon‐Esmarch‐Str. 56Münster48149Germany
| | - Christos Gatsogiannis
- Center for Soft Nanoscience and Institute of Medical Physics and BiophysicsUniversity of MuensterBusso Peus Straße 10Münster48149Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto‐Hahn‐Straße 11Dortmund44227Germany
| | - Bart Jan Ravoo
- Center for Soft Nanoscience and Organic Chemistry InstituteUniversity of MuensterBusso Peus Straße 10Münster48149Germany
| | - Volker Gerke
- Institute of Medical BiochemistryCenter for Molecular Biology of InflammationUniversity of MuensterVon‐Esmarch‐Str. 56Münster48149Germany
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4
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Hersh J, Broyles D, Capcha JMC, Dikici E, Shehadeh LA, Daunert S, Deo S. Peptide-Modified Biopolymers for Biomedical Applications. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021; 4:229-251. [PMID: 34250454 PMCID: PMC8267604 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Polymeric biomaterials have been used in a variety of applications, like cargo delivery and tissue scaffolding, because they are easily synthesized and can be adapted to many systems. However, there is still a need to further enhance and improve their functions to progress their use in the biomedical field. A promising solution is to modify the polymer surfaces with peptides that can increase biocompatibility, cellular interactions, and receptor targeting. In recent years, peptide modifications have been used to overcome many challenges to polymer biomaterial development. This review discusses recent progress in developing peptide-modified polymers for therapeutic applications including cell-specific targeting and tissue engineering. Furthermore, we will explore some of the most frequently studied base components of these biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Hersh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - David Broyles
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - José Manuel Condor Capcha
- Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Emre Dikici
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Lina A Shehadeh
- Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Sylvia Daunert
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Sapna Deo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
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Melkoumov A, St-Jean I, Banquy X, Leclair G, Leblond Chain J. GM1-Binding Conjugates To Improve Intestinal Permeability. Mol Pharm 2018; 16:60-70. [PMID: 30422668 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b00776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Drugs and proteins with poor intestinal permeability have a limited oral bioavailability. To remediate this problem, a receptor-mediated endocytosis and transcytosis approach was explored. Indeed, the nontoxic β subunit of cholera toxin (CTB) can cross the intestinal barrier by binding to receptor GM1. In this study, we explored the use of GM1-binding peptides and CTB as potential covalent carriers of poorly permeable molecules. GM1-binding peptides (G23, P3) and CTB were conjugated to poorly permeable fluorescent probes such as fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and albumin-FITC using triethylene glycol spacers and click chemistry. The affinity of the peptide conjugates with receptor GM1 was confirmed by isothermal titration calorimetry or microscale thermophoresis, and the results suggested the involvement of nonspecific interactions. Conjugating the model drugs to G23 and P3 improved the internalization into Caco-2 and T84 cells, although the process was not dependent on the amount of GM1 receptor. However, conjugation of bovine serum albumin FITC to CTB increased the internalization in the same cells in a GM1-dependent pathway. Peptide conjugates demonstrated a limited permeability through a Caco-2 monolayer, whereas G23 and CTB conjugates slightly enhanced permeability through a T84 cell monolayer compared to model drugs alone. Since CTB can improve the permeability of large macromolecules such as albumin, it is an interesting carrier for the improvement of oral bioavailability of various other macromolecules such as heparins, proteins, and siRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Melkoumov
- Faculty of Pharmacy , Université de Montréal , H3C 3J7 Montréal , Québec , Canada
| | - Isabelle St-Jean
- Faculty of Pharmacy , Université de Montréal , H3C 3J7 Montréal , Québec , Canada
| | - Xavier Banquy
- Faculty of Pharmacy , Université de Montréal , H3C 3J7 Montréal , Québec , Canada
| | - Grégoire Leclair
- Faculty of Pharmacy , Université de Montréal , H3C 3J7 Montréal , Québec , Canada
| | - Jeanne Leblond Chain
- Faculty of Pharmacy , Université de Montréal , H3C 3J7 Montréal , Québec , Canada
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6
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Andrieu J, Re F, Russo L, Nicotra F. Phage-displayed peptides targeting specific tissues and organs. J Drug Target 2018; 27:555-565. [DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2018.1531419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Josu Andrieu
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Re
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Russo
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Nicotra
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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7
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Ahmed M. Peptides, polypeptides and peptide–polymer hybrids as nucleic acid carriers. Biomater Sci 2017; 5:2188-2211. [DOI: 10.1039/c7bm00584a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Peptide, polypeptide and polymer–peptide hybrid based nucleic acid therapeutics (NAT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marya Ahmed
- Department of Chemistry & School of Sustainable Design and Engineering
- University of Prince Edward Island
- Charlottetown
- Canada
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8
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Ni R, Zhou J, Hossain N, Chau Y. Virus-inspired nucleic acid delivery system: Linking virus and viral mimicry. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 106:3-26. [PMID: 27473931 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Revised: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Targeted delivery of nucleic acids into disease sites of human body has been attempted for decades, but both viral and non-viral vectors are yet to meet our expectations. Safety concerns and low delivery efficiency are the main limitations of viral and non-viral vectors, respectively. The structure of viruses is both ordered and dynamic, and is believed to be the key for effective transfection. Detailed understanding of the physical properties of viruses, their interaction with cellular components, and responses towards cellular environments leading to transfection would inspire the development of safe and effective non-viral vectors. To this goal, this review systematically summarizes distinctive features of viruses that are implied for efficient nucleic acid delivery but not yet fully explored in current non-viral vectors. The assembly and disassembly of viral structures, presentation of viral ligands, and the subcellular targeting of viruses are emphasized. Moreover, we describe the current development of cationic material-based viral mimicry (CVM) and structural viral mimicry (SVM) in these aspects. In light of the discrepancy, we identify future opportunities for rational design of viral mimics for the efficient delivery of DNA and RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Ni
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Institute for Advanced Study, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Junli Zhou
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Naushad Hossain
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ying Chau
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Division of Biomedical Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
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9
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Lü JM, Liang Z, Wang X, Gu J, Yao Q, Chen C. New polymer of lactic-co-glycolic acid-modified polyethylenimine for nucleic acid delivery. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2016; 11:1971-91. [PMID: 27456396 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2016-0128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To develop an improved delivery system for nucleic acids. MATERIALS & METHODS We designed, synthesized and characterized a new polymer of lactic-co-glycolic acid-modified polyethylenimine (LGA-PEI). Functions of LGA-PEI polymer were determined. RESULTS The new LGA-PEI polymer spontaneously formed nanoparticles (NPs) with DNA or RNA, and showed higher DNA or RNA loading efficiency, higher or comparable transfection efficacy, and lower cytotoxicity in several cell types including PANC-1, Jurkat and HEK293 cells, when compared with lipofectamine 2000, branched or linear PEI (25 kDa). In nude mouse models, LGA-PEI showed higher delivery efficiency of plasmid DNA or miRNA mimic into pancreatic and ovarian xenograft tumors. LGA-PEI/DNA NPs showed much lower toxicity than control PEI NPs in mouse models. CONCLUSION The new LGA-PEI polymer is a safer and more effective system to deliver DNA or RNA than PEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Ming Lü
- Division of Surgical Research, Michael E DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, One Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zhengdong Liang
- Division of Surgical Research, Michael E DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, One Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Xiaoxiao Wang
- Division of Surgical Research, Michael E DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, One Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jianhua Gu
- AFM/SEM Core Facility, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Avenue, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Qizhi Yao
- Division of Surgical Research, Michael E DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, One Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Center for Translational Research on Inflammatory Diseases (CTRID), Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Changyi Chen
- Division of Surgical Research, Michael E DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, One Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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10
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Walthers CM, Seidlits SK. Gene delivery strategies to promote spinal cord repair. Biomark Insights 2015; 10:11-29. [PMID: 25922572 PMCID: PMC4395076 DOI: 10.4137/bmi.s20063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene therapies hold great promise for the treatment of many neurodegenerative disorders and traumatic injuries in the central nervous system. However, development of effective methods to deliver such therapies in a controlled manner to the spinal cord is a necessity for their translation to the clinic. Although essential progress has been made to improve efficiency of transgene delivery and reduce the immunogenicity of genetic vectors, there is still much work to be done to achieve clinical strategies capable of reversing neurodegeneration and mediating tissue regeneration. In particular, strategies to achieve localized, robust expression of therapeutic transgenes by target cell types, at controlled levels over defined time periods, will be necessary to fully regenerate functional spinal cord tissues. This review summarizes the progress over the last decade toward the development of effective gene therapies in the spinal cord, including identification of appropriate target genes, improvements to design of genetic vectors, advances in delivery methods, and strategies for delivery of multiple transgenes with synergistic actions. The potential of biomaterials to mediate gene delivery while simultaneously providing inductive scaffolding to facilitate tissue regeneration is also discussed.
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11
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Pigeon L, Gonçalves C, Gosset D, Pichon C, Midoux P. An E3-14.7K peptide that promotes microtubules-mediated transport of plasmid DNA increases polyplexes transfection efficiency. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2013; 9:3845-3851. [PMID: 23661626 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201300217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Chemical vectors as cationic polymers and cationic lipids are promising alternatives to viral vectors for gene therapy. Beside endosome escape and nuclear import, plasmid DNA (pDNA) migration in the cytosol toward the nuclear envelope is also regarded as a limiting step for efficient DNA transfection with non-viral vectors. Here, the interaction between E3-14.7K and FIP-1 to favor migration of pDNA along microtubules is exploited. E3-14.7K is an early protein of human adenoviruses that interacts via FIP-1 (Fourteen.7K Interacting Protein 1) protein with the light-chain components of the human microtubule motor protein dynein (TCTEL1). This peptide is conjugated with pDNA and mediates interaction of pDNA in vitro with isolated microtubules as well as with microtubules in cellulo. Videomicroscopy and tracking treatment of images clearly demonstrate that P79-98/pDNA conjugate exhibits a linear transport with large amplitude along microtubules upon 2 h transfection with polyplexes whereas control pDNA conjugate exhibits small non-directional movements in the cytoplasm. Remarkably, P79-98/peGFP polyplexes enhance by a factor 2.5 (up to 76%) the number of transfected cells. The results demonstrate, for the first time, that the transfection efficiency of polyplexes can be drastically increased when the microtubules migration of pDNA is facilitated by a peptide allowing pDNA docking to TCTEL1. This is a real breakthrough in the non viral gene delivery field that opens hope to build artificial viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Pigeon
- Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, CNRS UPR4301, Inserm and University of Orléans, 45071 Orléans cedex 02, France
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12
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Akinc A, Battaglia G. Exploiting endocytosis for nanomedicines. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2013; 5:a016980. [PMID: 24186069 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a016980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we briefly review the endocytic pathways used by cells, pointing out their defining characteristics and highlighting physical limitations that may direct the internalization of nanoparticles to a subset of these pathways. A more detailed description of these pathways is presented in the literature. We then focus on the endocytosis of nanomedicines and present how various nanomaterial parameters impact these endocytic processes. This topic is an area of active research, motivated by the recognition that an improved understanding of how nanomaterials interact at the molecular, cellular, and whole-organism level will lead to the design of better nanomedicines in the future. Next, we briefly review some of the important nanomedicines already on the market or in clinical development that serve to exemplify how endocytosis can be exploited for medical benefit. Finally, we present some key unanswered questions and remaining challenges to be addressed by the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akin Akinc
- Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
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13
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Shi J, Schellinger JG, Pun SH. Engineering biodegradable and multifunctional peptide-based polymers for gene delivery. J Biol Eng 2013; 7:25. [PMID: 24156736 PMCID: PMC4015834 DOI: 10.1186/1754-1611-7-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The complex nature of in vivo gene transfer establishes the need for multifunctional delivery vectors capable of meeting these challenges. An additional consideration for clinical translation of synthetic delivery formulations is reproducibility and scale-up of materials. In this review, we summarize our work over the last five years in developing a modular approach for synthesizing peptide-based polymers. In these materials, bioactive peptides that address various barriers to gene delivery are copolymerized with a hydrophilic backbone of N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) using reversible-addition fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. We demonstrate that this synthetic approach results in well-defined, narrowly-disperse polymers with controllable composition and molecular weight. To date, we have investigated the effectiveness of various bioactive peptides for DNA condensation, endosomal escape, cell targeting, and degradability on gene transfer, as well as the impact of multivalency and polymer architecture on peptide bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Shi
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering & Sciences Institute, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Joan G Schellinger
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering & Sciences Institute, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Suzie H Pun
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering & Sciences Institute, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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14
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O'Mahony AM, Godinho BMDC, Cryan JF, O'Driscoll CM. Non-viral nanosystems for gene and small interfering RNA delivery to the central nervous system: formulating the solution. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:3469-84. [PMID: 23893329 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The application of gene and RNAi-based therapies to the central nervous system (CNS), for neurological and neurodegenerative disease, offers immense potential. The issue of delivery to the target site remains the single greatest barrier to achieving this. There are challenges to gene and siRNA (small interfering RNA) delivery which are specific to the CNS, including the post-mitotic nature of neurons, their resistance to transfection and the blood-brain barrier. Viral vectors are highly efficient and have been used extensively in pre-clinical studies for CNS diseases. However, non-viral delivery offers an exciting alternative. In this review, we will discuss the extracellular and intracellular barriers to gene and siRNA delivery in the CNS. Our focus will be directed towards various non-viral strategies used to overcome these barriers. In this regard, we describe selected non-viral vectors and categorise them according to the barriers that they overcome by their formulation and targeting strategies. Some of the difficulties associated with non-viral vectors such as toxicity, large-scale manufacture and route of administration are discussed. We provide examples of optimised formulation approaches and discuss regulatory hurdles to clinical validation. Finally, we outline the components of an "ideal" formulation, based on a critical analysis of the approaches highlighted throughout the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoife M O'Mahony
- Pharmacodelivery Group, School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Ireland
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15
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Inspired by nature: fundamentals in nanotechnology design to overcome biological barriers. Ther Deliv 2013; 4:27-43. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.12.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Synergy between nanotechnology and drug delivery has created a multitude of novel drug-delivery systems with great therapeutic potential. However, directing these systems across the biological barriers to the target site has proven difficult. Nanotechnology is looking for inspiration in natural systems that have evolved to overcome such barriers. Here, we review nature-inspired strategies and fundamental features common to successful drug-delivery systems across biological barriers.
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16
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Parhiz H, Hashemi M, Hatefi A, Shier WT, Farzad SA, Ramezani M. Molecular weight-dependent genetic information transfer with disulfide-linked polyethylenimine-based nonviral vectors. J Biomater Appl 2012; 28:112-24. [PMID: 22899765 DOI: 10.1177/0885328212440344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
One strategy for improving gene vector properties of polyethylenimine is to facilitate individual transfection mechanism steps. This study investigates (i) improving transfection efficiency by attaching peptide nuclear localization signals (nuclear localization signals: SV40 large T antigen nuclear localization signal or C-terminus of histone H1) to polyethylenimine (10 kDa) and (ii) using disulfide linkages, which are expected to be stable during polyplex formation, but cleaved inside cells giving improved gene release. Nuclear localization signal-containing polyplexes exhibited low cytotoxicity, whereas transfection efficiency with high molecular weight plasmid DNA increased up to 3.6 times that of underivatized polyethylenimine in Neuro2A cells at higher molar ratio of polyethylenimine-nitrogen to DNA-phosphate (N/P) ratios. However, with luciferase-specific low molecular weight small interfering RNA in Neuro2A/EGFPLuc cells, nuclear localization signal-containing polyplexes with disulfide linkages caused substantial cytotoxicity at N/P ratios >15 and no consistent significant reduction in luciferase expression. Possible explanations for molecular weight-dependent differences in genetic information transfer by polyplexes containing disulfide-linked nuclear localization signals are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamideh Parhiz
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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17
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Nam HY, Kim J, Kim SW, Bull DA. Cell targeting peptide conjugation to siRNA polyplexes for effective gene silencing in cardiomyocytes. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:1302-9. [PMID: 22452378 DOI: 10.1021/mp200589z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
To deliver siRNA specifically to cardiomyocytes with a high transfection efficiency, primary cardiomyocyte-targeting (PCM) and/or cell-penetrating (Tat) peptides were incorporated into the siRNA. With the addition of plasmid DNA, these peptide-conjugated siRNAs were able to form compact and stable nanosized polyplex particles with bioreducible poly(CBA-DAH). The peptide-modified siRNA polyplexes enhanced the cellular uptake and the gene-silencing capacity of the siRNA in cardiomyocytes without significant immunogenicity or cytotoxicity. These findings demonstrate that the cell-targeting peptide and/or cell-penetrating peptide conjugation of siRNA may be a potentially important strategy for cell-specific gene therapy in gene-mediated disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Yeong Nam
- Center for Controlled Chemical Delivery, Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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18
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Abstract
Endocytosis is a fundamental process in which eukaryotic cells internalise molecules and macromolecules via deformation of the membrane and generation of membrane-bound carriers. Functional aspects are not only limited to uptake of nutrients, but also play a primary role in evolutionary conserved processes such as the regulation of plasma membrane protein activity (i.e. signal-transducing receptors, small-molecule transporters and ion channels), cell motility and mitosis. The macromolecular nature of the material transported by endocytosis makes this route one of the most important targets for nanomedicine. Indeed, many nanoparticle formulations have been customised to enter cells through endocytosis and deliver the cargo within the cell. In this critical review, we present an overview of the biology of endocytosis and discuss its implications in cell internalisation of nanoparticles. We discuss how nanoparticle size, shape and surface chemistry can control this process effectively. Finally, we discuss different drug delivery strategies on how to evade lysosomal degradation to promote effective release of the cargo (376 references).
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Canton
- The Krebs Institute, The Centre for Membrane Interaction and Dynamics, The Sheffield Cancer Research Centre, and the Department of Biomedical Science, The University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
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19
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Non-viral gene therapy for neurological diseases, with an emphasis on targeted gene delivery. J Control Release 2012; 157:183-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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20
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Johnson RN, Chu DSH, Shi J, Schellinger JG, Carlson PM, Pun SH. HPMA-oligolysine copolymers for gene delivery: optimization of peptide length and polymer molecular weight. J Control Release 2011; 155:303-11. [PMID: 21782863 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Polycations are one of the most frequently used classes of materials for non-viral gene transfer in vivo. Several studies have demonstrated a sensitive relationship between polymer structure and delivery activity. In this work, we used reverse addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization to build a panel of N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA)-oligolysine copolymers with varying peptide length and polymer molecular weight. The panel was screened for optimal DNA-binding, colloidal stability in salt, high transfection efficiency, and low cytotoxicity. Increasing polyplex stability in PBS correlated with increasing polymer molecular weight and decreasing peptide length. Copolymers containing K(5) and K(10) oligocations transfected cultured cells with significantly higher efficiencies than copolymers of K(15). Four HPMA-oligolysine copolymers were identified that met the desired criteria. Polyplexes formed with these copolymers demonstrated both salt stability and transfection efficiencies on-par with poly(ethylenimine) PEI in cultured cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell N Johnson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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21
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Kwon EJ, Liong S, Pun SH. A truncated HGP peptide sequence that retains endosomolytic activity and improves gene delivery efficiencies. Mol Pharm 2010; 7:1260-5. [PMID: 20476763 DOI: 10.1021/mp1000668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
HGP is a 24-amino acid peptide derived from HIV gp41 that increases vesicular escape when incorporated into gene delivery vehicles. The typical yield of HGP from solid phase peptide synthesis is low due to its length and hydrophobicity. The goal of this work was to investigate truncated sequences that maintained activity in order to improve the ease and yield of synthesis. A shortened, 15-amino acid sequence retained comparable lytic activity and the ability to interact with lipids when compared to the full length peptide. A scrambled peptide showed poor lytic activity, confirming that the activity of these endosomal escape peptides is sequence specific. Peptides were covalently attached to polyethylenimine (PEI) and used to condense plasmid DNA to form nanoparticulate carriers. When delivery efficiencies of PEI-peptide conjugates were compared in vitro, PEI modified with the truncated HGP sequence increased transgene expression over unmodified PEI and full length HGP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester J Kwon
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, 3720 15th Avenue NE, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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22
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Posadas I, Guerra FJ, Ceña V. Nonviral vectors for the delivery of small interfering RNAs to the CNS. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2010; 5:1219-36. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.10.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
While efficient methods for cell line transfection are well described, for primary neurons a high-yield method different from those relying on viral vectors is lacking. Viral vector-based primary neuronal infection has several drawbacks, including complexity of vector preparation, safety concerns and the generation of immune and inflammatory responses, when used in vivo. This article will cover the different approaches that are being used to efficiently deliver genetic material (both DNA and small interfering RNA) to neuronal tissue using nonviral vectors, including the use of cationic lipids, polyethylenimine derivatives, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes and the combination of carbon-made nanoparticles with dendrimers. The effectiveness, both in vivo and in vitro, of the different methods to deliver genetic material to neural tissue is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inmaculada Posadas
- Unidad Asociada Neurodeath, CSIC-Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha. Departamento de Ciencias Médicas. Albacete, Spain Unidad Asociada Neurodeath, Facultad de Medicina, Avda. Almansa, 14, 02006 Albacete, Spain
- CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain
- CIBER-BBN, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Guerra
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Orgánica y Bioquímica, Facultad de Química-IRICA, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
- NanoDrugs, S.L. Parque Científico y Tecnológico, Albacete, Spain
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23
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Burke RS, Pun SH. Synthesis and characterization of biodegradable HPMA-oligolysine copolymers for improved gene delivery. Bioconjug Chem 2010; 21:140-50. [PMID: 19968270 DOI: 10.1021/bc9003662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bioactive peptides, including DNA-binding, endosomal release, and cell targeting peptides, have been integrated into synthetic gene carriers to improve delivery efficiency by enabling the vectors to overcome barriers to gene delivery. Our overall goal is to develop multifunctional, peptide-based polymers that incorporate motifs to condense DNA and facilitate sequential trafficking steps. One approach is to polymerize vinyl-terminated peptides by radical polymerization. In this work, cationic oligolysine peptides were designed to contain vinyl termini with internal reducible linkers. These peptides were copolymerized with HPMA to form biodegradable, DNA-condensing copolymers for gene delivery. The polymerization conditions were optimized by varying the initiator to monomer ratios, macromonomer to comonomer ratios, and reactant concentrations. The synthesized copolymers were shown to possess several important properties required for in vivo gene delivery applications, including (i) efficient DNA binding and condensation, (ii) the ability to stabilize particles against salt-induced aggregation, (iii) the ability to resist extracellular polyplex unpackaging, (iv) biocompatibility and the potential to be degraded into nontoxic components after cellular uptake, and (v) efficient delivery of plasmid to cultured cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rob S Burke
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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24
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Kwon EJ, Lasiene J, Jacobson BE, Park IK, Horner PJ, Pun SH. Targeted nonviral delivery vehicles to neural progenitor cells in the mouse subventricular zone. Biomaterials 2009; 31:2417-24. [PMID: 20004466 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Targeted gene therapy can potentially minimize undesirable off-target toxicity due to specific delivery. Neuron-specific gene delivery in the central nervous system is challenging because neurons are non-dividing and also outnumbered by glial cells. One approach is to transfect dividing neural stem and progenitor cells (NSCs and NPCs, respectively). In this work, we demonstrate cell-specific gene delivery to NPCs in the brains of adult mice using a peptide-modified polymeric vector. Tet1, a 12-amino acid peptide which has been shown to bind specifically to neuronal cells, was utilized as a neuronal targeting ligand. The cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI) was covalently modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) for in vivo salt stability and Tet1 for neuron targeting to yield a Tet1-PEG-PEI conjugate. When plasmid DNA encoding the reporter gene luciferase was complexed with Tet1-PEG-PEI and delivered in vivo via an injection into the lateral ventricle, Tet1-PEG-PEI complexes mediated increased luciferase expression levels in brain tissue when compared to unmodified PEI-PEG complexes. In addition, cells transfected by Tet1-PEG-PEI complexes were found to be exclusively adult NPCs whereas untargeted PEG-PEI complexes were found to transfect a heterogenous population of cells. Thus, we have demonstrated targeted, nonviral delivery of nucleic acids to adult NPCs using the Tet1 targeting ligand. These materials could potentially be used to deliver therapeutic genes for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester J Kwon
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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25
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Cohen RN, van der Aa MAEM, Macaraeg N, Lee AP, Szoka FC. Quantification of plasmid DNA copies in the nucleus after lipoplex and polyplex transfection. J Control Release 2009; 135:166-74. [PMID: 19211029 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2008.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Revised: 12/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/29/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear uptake of plasmid DNA is one of the many cellular barriers that limit the efficiency of non-viral gene delivery systems. We have determined the number of plasmids that reach the nucleus of a transfected cell using an internally standardized quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay. We isolated nuclei using two different protocols: a density gradient technique and a detergent-based method. The density gradient procedure yielded nuclei with substantially less adhering plasmids on the outside of the nuclei. Using the density gradient protocol we determined that cells transfected with Lipofectamine lipoplexes or polyethylenimine polyplexes contained between 75 and 50,000 plasmids/nucleus, depending on the applied plasmid dose. Any increase above 3000 plasmids/nucleus resulted in only marginal increases in transgene expression. Furthermore, lipoplex-delivered plasmids were more efficiently expressed, on the basis of protein expression per plasmid number in the nucleus, than polyplex-delivered plasmids. This indicates that polymer may remain bound to some plasmids in the nucleus. Lastly, by sorting transfected cells into high- and low-expressing sub-populations, we observe that a sub-population of cells contain 3x greater plasmids/nucleus but express nearly 100x more transgene than other cells within a single transfection reaction. Taken together these results suggest the importance of considering the processes downstream from nuclear entry for strategies to improve the efficiency of gene transfer reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard N Cohen
- Joint Graduate Group in Bioengineering, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0912, USA
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