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Aeindartehran L, Sadri Z, Rahimi F, Alinejad T. Fluorescence in depth: integration of spectroscopy and imaging with Raman, IR, and CD for advanced research. Methods Appl Fluoresc 2024; 12:032002. [PMID: 38697201 DOI: 10.1088/2050-6120/ad46e6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
Fluorescence spectroscopy serves as a vital technique for studying the interaction between light and fluorescent molecules. It encompasses a range of methods, each presenting unique advantages and applications. This technique finds utility in various chemical studies. This review discusses Fluorescence spectroscopy, its branches such as Time-Resolved Fluorescence Spectroscopy (TRFS) and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM), and their integration with other spectroscopic methods, including Raman, Infrared (IR), and Circular Dichroism (CD) spectroscopies. By delving into these methods, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the capabilities and significance of fluorescence spectroscopy in scientific research, highlighting its diverse applications and the enhanced understanding it brings when combined with other spectroscopic methods. This review looks at each technique's unique features and applications. It discusses the prospects of their combined use in advancing scientific understanding and applications across various domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lida Aeindartehran
- Department of Chemistry, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275, United States of America
| | - Zahra Sadri
- Department of Biological Science, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75205, United States of America
| | - Fateme Rahimi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran
| | - Tahereh Alinejad
- The Key Laboratory of Interventional Pulmonology of Zhejiang Province, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, South Baixiang, Ouhai District, Wenzhou 325015, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Cell Growth Factor, Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision, and Brain Health), Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, People's Republic of China
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2
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Attri A, Thakur D, Kaur T, Sensale S, Peng Z, Kumar D, Singh RP. Nanoparticles Incorporating a Fluorescence Turn-on Reporter for Real-Time Drug Release Monitoring, a Chemoenhancer and a Stealth Agent: Poseidon's Trident against Cancer? Mol Pharm 2020; 18:124-147. [PMID: 33346663 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The rate and extent of drug release under physiological conditions is a key factor influencing the therapeutic activity of a formulation. Real-time detection of drug release by conventional pharmacokinetics approaches is confounded by low sensitivity, particularly in the case of tissue-targeted novel drug delivery systems, where low concentrations of the drug reach systemic circulation. We present a novel fluorescence turn-on platform for real-time monitoring of drug release from nanoparticles based on reversible fluorescence quenching in fluorescein esters. Fluorescein-conjugated carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were esterified with methotrexate in solution and solid phase, followed by supramolecular functionalization with a chemoenhancer (suramin) or/and a stealth agent (dextran sulfate). Suramin was found to increase the cytotoxicity of methotrexate in A549 cells. On the other hand, dextran sulfate exhibited no effect on cytotoxicity or cellular uptake of CNTs by A549 cells, while a decrease in cellular uptake of CNTs and cytotoxicity of methotrexate was observed in macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells). Similar results were also obtained when CNTs were replaced with graphene. Docking studies revealed that the conjugates are not internalized by folate receptors/transporters. Further, docking and molecular dynamics studies revealed the conjugates do not exhibit affinity toward the methotrexate target, dihydrofolate reductase. Molecular dynamics studies also revealed that distinct features of dextran-CNT and suramin-CNT interactions, characterized by π-π interactions between CNTs and dextran/suramin. Our study provides a simple, cost-effective, and scalable method for the synthesis of nanoparticles conferred with the ability to monitor drug release in real-time. This method could also be extended to other drugs and other types of nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Attri
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173 221, India
| | - Deepak Thakur
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173 221, India
| | - Taranpreet Kaur
- Department of Biotechnology, Government Mohindra College, Patiala, Punjab 147 001, India
| | - Sebastian Sensale
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556-5637, United States
| | - Zhangli Peng
- Center for Bioinformatics and Quantitative Biology, Richard and Loan Hill Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Deepak Kumar
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173 221, India
| | - Raman Preet Singh
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173 221, India.,Department of Pharmacy, Government Polytechnic College, Bathinda, Punjab 151 001, India
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3
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Kumar S, Kang TW, Bala S, Kamboj S, Jeon HC. Phototoxicity free quantum dot-based niosome formulation for controlled drug release and its monitoring. APPLIED NANOSCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13204-018-0757-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Sánchez-López E, Egea MA, Davis BM, Guo L, Espina M, Silva AM, Calpena AC, Souto EMB, Ravindran N, Ettcheto M, Camins A, García ML, Cordeiro MF. Memantine-Loaded PEGylated Biodegradable Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Glaucoma. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2018; 14:1701808. [PMID: 29154484 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201701808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Glaucoma is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease associated with retinal ganglion cells (RGC) loss. Increasing reports of similarities in glaucoma and other neurodegenerative conditions have led to speculation that therapies for brain neurodegenerative disorders may also have potential as glaucoma therapies. Memantine is an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist approved for Alzheimer's disease treatment. Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity is implicated in glaucoma and NMDA receptor antagonism is advocated as a potential strategy for RGC preservation. This study describes the development of a topical formulation of memantine-loaded PLGA-PEG nanoparticles (MEM-NP) and investigates the efficacy of this formulation using a well-established glaucoma model. MEM-NPs <200 nm in diameter and incorporating 4 mg mL-1 of memantine were prepared with 0.35 mg mL-1 localized to the aqueous interior. In vitro assessment indicated sustained release from MEM-NPs and ex vivo ocular permeation studies demonstrated enhanced delivery. MEM-NPs were additionally found to be well tolerated in vitro (human retinoblastoma cells) and in vivo (Draize test). Finally, when applied topically in a rodent model of ocular hypertension for three weeks, MEM-NP eye drops were found to significantly (p < 0.0001) reduce RGC loss. These results suggest that topical MEM-NP is safe, well tolerated, and, most promisingly, neuroprotective in an experimental glaucoma model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Sánchez-López
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
- Biomedical Research and Networking Center in Neurodegenerative diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, 28031, Spain
| | - Maria Antonia Egea
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Benjamin Michael Davis
- Glaucoma and Retinal Neurodegeneration Research, Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Li Guo
- Glaucoma and Retinal Neurodegeneration Research, Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Marta Espina
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Amelia Maria Silva
- Department of Biology and Environment, School of Life and Environmental sciences (ECVA, UTAD), and Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB-UTAD), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Ana Cristina Calpena
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Eliana Maria Barbosa Souto
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC) and REQUIMTE/Group of Pharmaceutical Technology, Polo das Ciências da Saúde Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Nivedita Ravindran
- Glaucoma and Retinal Neurodegeneration Research, Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Miren Ettcheto
- Biomedical Research and Networking Center in Neurodegenerative diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, 28031, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Antonio Camins
- Biomedical Research and Networking Center in Neurodegenerative diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, 28031, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Maria Luisa García
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Maria Francesca Cordeiro
- Glaucoma and Retinal Neurodegeneration Research, Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
- Western Eye Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare Trust, London, UK
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Conte C, Fraix A, Thomsen H, Ungaro F, Cardile V, Graziano ACE, Ericson MB, Quaglia F, Sortino S. Monitoring the release of a NO photodonor from polymer nanoparticles via Förster resonance energy transfer and two-photon fluorescence imaging. J Mater Chem B 2018; 6:249-256. [DOI: 10.1039/c7tb02781h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Polymer nanoparticles entrapping a NO photodonor are designed to monitor its release in human skin samples through two-photon fluorescence imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Conte
- Drug Delivery Laboratory
- Department of Pharmacy
- University of Napoli Federico II
- Napoli
- Italy
| | - Aurore Fraix
- Laboratory of Photochemistry
- Department of Drug Science
- Catania
- Italy
| | - Hanna Thomsen
- Biomedical Photonics Group
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology
- University of Gothenburg
- Sweden
| | - Francesca Ungaro
- Drug Delivery Laboratory
- Department of Pharmacy
- University of Napoli Federico II
- Napoli
- Italy
| | - Venera Cardile
- Department of Bio-Medical and Biotechnological Sciences
- University of Catania
- I-95125 Catania
- Italy
| | - Adriana C. E. Graziano
- Department of Bio-Medical and Biotechnological Sciences
- University of Catania
- I-95125 Catania
- Italy
| | - Marica B. Ericson
- Biomedical Photonics Group
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology
- University of Gothenburg
- Sweden
| | - Fabiana Quaglia
- Drug Delivery Laboratory
- Department of Pharmacy
- University of Napoli Federico II
- Napoli
- Italy
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Surnar B, Jayakannan M. Structural Engineering of Biodegradable PCL Block Copolymer Nanoassemblies for Enzyme-Controlled Drug Delivery in Cancer Cells. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2016; 2:1926-1941. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.6b00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bapurao Surnar
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, Dr. Homi
Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India
| | - Manickam Jayakannan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, Dr. Homi
Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India
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Ramezanpour M, Leung SSW, Delgado-Magnero KH, Bashe BYM, Thewalt J, Tieleman DP. Computational and experimental approaches for investigating nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2016; 1858:1688-709. [PMID: 26930298 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 02/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Most therapeutic agents suffer from poor solubility, rapid clearance from the blood stream, a lack of targeting, and often poor translocation ability across cell membranes. Drug/gene delivery systems (DDSs) are capable of overcoming some of these barriers to enhance delivery of drugs to their right place of action, e.g. inside cancer cells. In this review, we focus on nanoparticles as DDSs. Complementary experimental and computational studies have enhanced our understanding of the mechanism of action of nanocarriers and their underlying interactions with drugs, biomembranes and other biological molecules. We review key biophysical aspects of DDSs and discuss how computer modeling can assist in rational design of DDSs with improved and optimized properties. We summarize commonly used experimental techniques for the study of DDSs. Then we review computational studies for several major categories of nanocarriers, including dendrimers and dendrons, polymer-, peptide-, nucleic acid-, lipid-, and carbon-based DDSs, and gold nanoparticles. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Proteins edited by J.C. Gumbart and Sergei Noskov.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ramezanpour
- Centre for Molecular Simulation, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - S S W Leung
- Department of Physics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - K H Delgado-Magnero
- Centre for Molecular Simulation, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - B Y M Bashe
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - J Thewalt
- Department of Physics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - D P Tieleman
- Centre for Molecular Simulation, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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8
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Barman S, Mukhopadhyay SK, Biswas S, Nandi S, Gangopadhyay M, Dey S, Anoop A, Pradeep Singh ND. A p
-Hydroxyphenacyl-Benzothiazole-Chlorambucil Conjugate as a Real-Time-Monitoring Drug-Delivery System Assisted by Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201508901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shrabani Barman
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Sourav K. Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Biotechnology; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Sandipan Biswas
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Surajit Nandi
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Moumita Gangopadhyay
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Satyahari Dey
- Department of Biotechnology; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Anakuthil Anoop
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - N. D. Pradeep Singh
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
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9
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Barman S, Mukhopadhyay SK, Biswas S, Nandi S, Gangopadhyay M, Dey S, Anoop A, Pradeep Singh ND. A p
-Hydroxyphenacyl-Benzothiazole-Chlorambucil Conjugate as a Real-Time-Monitoring Drug-Delivery System Assisted by Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:4194-8. [PMID: 26919455 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201508901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 01/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shrabani Barman
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Sourav K. Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Biotechnology; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Sandipan Biswas
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Surajit Nandi
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Moumita Gangopadhyay
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Satyahari Dey
- Department of Biotechnology; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - Anakuthil Anoop
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
| | - N. D. Pradeep Singh
- Department of Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology; Kharagpur 721302 West Bengal India
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Pramod PS, Deshpande NU, Jayakannan M. Real-Time Drug Release Analysis of Enzyme and pH Responsive Polysaccharide Nanovesicles. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:10511-23. [PMID: 26237375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b05795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The accurate estimation of drug release kinetics of polymeric vehicles is an indispensable prerequisite for the developments of successful drug carriers for cancer therapy. The present investigation reports the development of time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopic approach for the real-time release kinetics of fluorophore loaded polysaccharide vesicles that are potential vectors in cancer treatment. The polysaccharide vesicles were custom designed with appropriate enzyme and pH responsiveness and loaded with water-soluble biocompatible fluorophore Rhodamine B (Rh-B). The semipermeable membrane dialysis method along with steady state absorbance spectroscopic technique was found to be inaccurate for the estimation of drug release. Time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) technique was found to exhibit significant difference in excited state decay profiles and fluorescent lifetime of Rh-B in the free and polymer bound states. This enabled the establishment of real-time drug release protocols by TCSPC method for polysaccharide vesicles that are responsible to pH and enzyme with respect to intracellular compartments. Real-time analysis predicted the release kinetics 20-25% higher accuracy when compared to the dialysis method under in vitro conditions. Moreover, the ability of enzyme to cleave the polysaccharide vesicles was further validated by docking studies. The positioning of the molecules in active site of enzyme and the binding energy data were generated using AUTODOCK program to study the rupture of polysaccharide vesicles. This new TCSPC technique could be very useful for studying the drug release pattern of synthetic polymer vesicles loaded with Rh-B fluorophore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poothayil Subash Pramod
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER)-Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India
| | - Nilesh Umakant Deshpande
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER)-Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India
| | - Manickam Jayakannan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER)-Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, Maharashtra, India
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Gustafson TP, Lim YH, Flores JA, Heo GS, Zhang F, Zhang S, Samarajeewa S, Raymond JE, Wooley KL. Holistic assessment of covalently labeled core-shell polymeric nanoparticles with fluorescent contrast agents for theranostic applications. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:631-41. [PMID: 24392760 PMCID: PMC3933954 DOI: 10.1021/la403943w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The successful development of degradable polymeric nanostructures as optical probes for use in nanotheranostic applications requires the intelligent design of materials such that their surface response, degradation, drug delivery, and imaging properties are all optimized. In the case of imaging, optimization must result in materials that allow differentiation between unbound optical contrast agents and labeled polymeric materials as they undergo degradation. In this study, we have shown that use of traditional electrophoretic gel-plate assays for the determination of the purity of dye-conjugated degradable nanoparticles is limited by polymer degradation characteristics. To overcome these limitations, we have outlined a holistic approach to evaluating dye and peptide-polymer nanoparticle conjugation by utilizing steady-state fluorescence, anisotropy, and emission and anisotropy lifetime decay profiles, through which nanoparticle-dye binding can be assessed independently of perturbations, such as those presented during the execution of electrolyte gel-based assays. This approach has been demonstrated to provide an overall understanding of the spectral signature-structure-function relationship, ascertaining key information on interactions between the fluorophore, polymer, and solvent components that have a direct and measurable impact on the emissive properties of the optical probe. The use of these powerful techniques provides feedback that can be utilized to improve nanotheranostics by evaluating dye emissivity in degradable nanotheranostic systems, which has become increasingly important as modern platforms transition to architectures intentionally reliant on degradation and built-in environmental responses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jeffery E. Raymond
- Laboratory for Synthetic-Biologic Interactions, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
| | - Karen L. Wooley
- Laboratory for Synthetic-Biologic Interactions, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
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