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Luo W, Zhang T. The new era of pancreatic cancer treatment: Application of nanotechnology breaking through bottlenecks. Cancer Lett 2024; 594:216979. [PMID: 38795762 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
Since the advent of nanomedicine, physicians have harnessed these approaches for the prophylaxis, detection, and therapy of life-threatening diseases, particularly cancer. Nanoparticles have demonstrated notable efficacy in cancer therapy, showcasing the primary application of nanotechnology in targeted drug delivery. Pancreatic cancer stands out as the most lethal solid tumour in humans. The low survival rate is attributed to its highly aggressive nature, intrinsic resistance to chemotherapeutics, and the lack of successful therapies, compounded by delayed diagnosis due to nonspecific symptoms and the absence of rapid diagnostic strategies. Despite these challenges, nanotechnology-based carrier methods have been successfully employed in imaging and therapy approaches. Overcoming drug resistance in pancreatic cancer necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the microenvironment associated with the disease, paving the way for innovative nanocarriers. Hindered chemotherapy infiltration, attributed to inadequate vascularization and a dense tumour stroma, is a major hurdle that nanotechnology addresses. Intelligent delivery techniques, based on the Enhanced Permeability and Retention effect, form the basis of recently developed anticancer nanocarriers. These advancements aim to enhance drug accumulation in tumour locations, offering a potential solution to the treatment-resistant nature of cancer. Addressing the challenges in pancreatic cancer treatment demands innovative therapies, and the emergence of active nanocarriers presents a promising avenue for enhancing outcomes. This review specifically delves into the latest advancements in nanotechnology for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Luo
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China.
| | - Taiping Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China.
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Zhang Y, Yu R, Zhao C, Liang J, Zhang Y, Su H, Zhao J, Wu H, Xu S, Zhang Z, Wang L, Zou X, Zhu Y, Zhang S, Lv Y. CAFs Homologous Biomimetic Liposome Bearing BET Inhibitor and Pirfenidone Synergistically Promoting Antitumor Efficacy in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2305279. [PMID: 37968249 PMCID: PMC10767438 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202305279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
BRD4 is a member of the BET protein family involved in chromatin remodeling and transcriptional regulation. Several BET inhibitors (BETi) have entered clinical trials, demonstrating potential in inducing cancer cell apoptosis and tumor regression. However, resistance to BETi is common in solid tumors. In pancreatic cancer, it is found that cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the tumor microenvironment reduce the BET inhibitor JQ1 sensitivity by inducing BRD4 expression. Moreover, CAFs play a crucial role in the formation of a dense stromal barrier. Therefore, targeting CAFs in the tumor microenvironment of pancreatic cancer not only enhances cancer cells sensitivity to JQ1 but also increases drug perfusion and improves oxygen supply, thus reducing glycolysis and limiting energy supply. To address this challenge, a homologous targeting mechanism utilizing activated fibroblast membrane-coated liposomes is proposed for specific drug precise target to CAFs-rich pancreatic cancer. Additionally, TAT peptides enable liposomes penetration, delivering PFD for targeted anti-fibrotic therapy, reducing extracellular matrix generation and glycolysis, and enhancing JQ1 delivery and sensitivity. In conclusion, the findings indicate the tremendous potential of this CAFs-targeting liposomal delivery system in pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Zhang
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Ranran Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical BiotechnologySchool of Life Sciences Nanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Cheng Zhao
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Jiawei Liang
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Yixuan Zhang
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Haochen Su
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing Medical UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Shijin Xu
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Ziying Zhang
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Xiaoping Zou
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Yun Zhu
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Department of PharmacyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalDrum Tower Clinical Medical College of Nanjing Medical UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Nanjing Medical Center for Clinical PharmacyNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Shu Zhang
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
| | - Ying Lv
- Department of GastroenterologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalThe Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical SchoolNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
- Institute of PancreatologyNanjing UniversityNanjingJiangsu Province210008P. R. China
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Bellapu KK, Joga R, Kannan BR, Yerram S, Varpe P, Mergu T, Vasu PY, Srivastava S, Kumar S. Lipid-based mesoporous silica nanoparticles: a paradigm shift in management of pancreatic cancer. Pharm Pat Anal 2023; 12:261-273. [PMID: 38214201 DOI: 10.4155/ppa-2023-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma, a devastating disease, has the worst cancer prognosis in humans. It often develops resistance to common chemotherapy medications, such as gemcitabine, taxol and 5-fluorouracil. The dense stroma limits therapeutic efficacy in treating this disease. Low or limited drug loading capacity is another problem with current chemotherapeutic agents. There is a need to develop novel approaches to overcome these issues. Hence, an innovative approach has been proposed to co-deliver both hydrophilic (Gemcitabine) and hydrophobic (Paclitaxel) drugs in a single carrier using lipid bilayer-mesoporous silica nanoparticles (LB-MSNP). MSNPs offer effective drug delivery due to their superior bioavailability and physicochemical properties. Further, in order to achieve clinical translation and regulatory approval, toxicity and biodegradability of MSNPs must be resolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Kumar Bellapu
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Ramesh Joga
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Bharthi R Kannan
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Sravani Yerram
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Priya Varpe
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Tejaswini Mergu
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Pavan Y Vasu
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Saurabh Srivastava
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
| | - Sandeep Kumar
- Department of Regulatory Affairs, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, 500037, India
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Zhang H, Yue X, Chen Z, Liu C, Wu W, Zhang N, Liu Z, Yang L, Jiang Q, Cheng Q, Luo P, Liu G. Define cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the tumor microenvironment: new opportunities in cancer immunotherapy and advances in clinical trials. Mol Cancer 2023; 22:159. [PMID: 37784082 PMCID: PMC10544417 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-023-01860-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite centuries since the discovery and study of cancer, cancer is still a lethal and intractable health issue worldwide. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have gained much attention as a pivotal component of the tumor microenvironment. The versatility and sophisticated mechanisms of CAFs in facilitating cancer progression have been elucidated extensively, including promoting cancer angiogenesis and metastasis, inducing drug resistance, reshaping the extracellular matrix, and developing an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Owing to their robust tumor-promoting function, CAFs are considered a promising target for oncotherapy. However, CAFs are a highly heterogeneous group of cells. Some subpopulations exert an inhibitory role in tumor growth, which implies that CAF-targeting approaches must be more precise and individualized. This review comprehensively summarize the origin, phenotypical, and functional heterogeneity of CAFs. More importantly, we underscore advances in strategies and clinical trials to target CAF in various cancers, and we also summarize progressions of CAF in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xinghai Yue
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhe Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chao Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Central Hospital of Zhuzhou, Zhuzhou, China
| | - Wantao Wu
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zaoqu Liu
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Liping Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qing Jiang
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Quan Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
| | - Peng Luo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
- Department of Oncology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Guodong Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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Duan H, Li L, He S. Advances and Prospects in the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:3973-3988. [PMID: 37489138 PMCID: PMC10363367 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s413496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer is a highly malignant and incurable disease, characterized by its aggressive nature and high fatality rate. The most common type is pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), which has poor prognosis and high mortality rate. Current treatments for pancreatic cancer mainly encompass surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and combination regimens. However, despite efforts to improve prognosis, and the 5-year survival rate for pancreatic cancer remains very low. Therefore, it's urgent to explore novel therapeutic approaches. With the rapid development of therapeutic strategies in recent years, new ideas have been provided for treating pancreatic cancer. This review expositions the advancements in nano drug delivery system, molecular targeted drugs, and photo-thermal treatment combined with nanotechnology for pancreatic cancer. It comprehensively analyzes the prospects of combined drug delivery strategies for treating pancreatic cancer, aiming at a deeper understanding of the existing drugs and therapeutic approaches, promoting the development of new therapeutic drugs, and attempting to enhance the therapeutic effect for patients with this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaiyu Duan
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Pancreatic Oncology, Hefei Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shiming He
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
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Huq TB, Vivero-Escoto JL. Synthesis of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Nucleic Acid Nanostructures. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2709:205-210. [PMID: 37572282 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3417-2_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Nanomaterials have been extensively used for the delivery of nucleic acids. This is attributed to the unique features of nanoparticles to carry genetic material with different physiochemical properties. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) are a versatile platform for the efficient delivery of nuclei acid-based materials. In this chapter, we describe the synthesis of MSNPs to efficiently transport nucleic acid nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamanna Binte Huq
- Department of Chemistry, Nanoscale Science Program, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Juan L Vivero-Escoto
- Department of Chemistry, Nanoscale Science Program, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, USA.
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Florensa M, Llenas M, Medina-Gutiérrez E, Sandoval S, Tobías-Rossell G. Key Parameters for the Rational Design, Synthesis, and Functionalization of Biocompatible Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122703. [PMID: 36559195 PMCID: PMC9788600 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last few years, research on silica nanoparticles has rapidly increased. Particularly on mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), as nanocarriers for the treatment of various diseases because of their physicochemical properties and biocompatibility. The use of MSNs combined with therapeutic agents can provide better encapsulation and effective delivery. MSNs as nanocarriers might also be a promising tool to lower the therapeutic dosage levels and thereby to reduce undesired side effects. Researchers have explored several routes to conjugate both imaging and therapeutic agents onto MSNs, thus expanding their potential as theranostic platforms, in order to allow for the early diagnosis and treatment of diseases. This review introduces a general overview of recent advances in the field of silica nanoparticles. In particular, the review tackles the fundamental aspects of silicate materials, including a historical presentation to new silicates and then focusing on the key parameters that govern the tailored synthesis of functional MSNs. Finally, the biomedical applications of MSNs are briefly revised, along with their biocompatibility, biodistribution and degradation. This review aims to provide the reader with the tools for a rational design of biocompatible MSNs for their application in the biomedical field. Particular attention is paid to the role that the synthesis conditions have on the physicochemical properties of the resulting MSNs, which, in turn, will determine their pharmacological behavior. Several recent examples are highlighted to stress the potential that MSNs hold as drug delivery systems, for biomedical imaging, as vaccine adjuvants and as theragnostic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Stefania Sandoval
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (G.T.-R.); Tel.: +34-(93)-5801853 (S.S. & G.T.-R.)
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Zhao Z, Simms A, Steinmetz NF. Cisplatin-Loaded Tobacco Mosaic Virus for Ovarian Cancer Treatment. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:4379-4387. [PMID: 36053908 PMCID: PMC9831511 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the foremost cause of gynecological cancer and a major cause of cancer death in women. Treatment for advanced stage is surgical debulking followed by chemotherapy; however, most patients relapse with more aggressive and therapy-resistant tumors. There is a need to develop drug delivery approaches to deliver platinum therapies to tumors to increase efficacy while maintaining safety. Toward this goal, we utilized the protein nanotubes from the plant virus, tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), as a drug carrier. Specifically, the nanochannel of TMV was loaded with the active dication form of cisplatin (cisPt2+), making use of the negatively charged Glu acid side chains that line the interior channel of TMV. We achieved a loading efficiency with ∼2700 cisPt2+ per TMV; formulation stability was established with drug complexes stably loaded into the carrier for 2 months under refrigerated storage. TMV-cisPt maintained its efficacy against ovarian tumor cells with an IC50 of ∼40 μM. TMV-cisPt exhibited superior efficacy vs free cisPt in ovarian tumor mouse models using intraperitoneal ID8-Defb29/Vegf-a-Luc (mouse) tumors and subcutaneous A2780 (human) xenografts. TMV-cisPt treatment led to reduced tumor burden and increased survival. Using ID8-Defb29/Vegf-a-Luc-bearing C57BL/6 mice, we also noted reduced tumor growth when animals were treated with TMV alone, which may indicate antitumor immunity induced by the immunomodulatory nature of the plant virus nanoparticle. Biodistribution studies supported the efficacy data, showing increased cisPt accumulation within tumors when delivered via the TMV carrier vs free cisPt administration. Finally, good safety profiles were noted. The study highlights the potential of TMV as a drug carrier against cancer and points to the opportunity to explore plant viruses as chemo-immuno combination cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongchao Zhao
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Andrea Simms
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Radiology, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States; Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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Alshememry AK, Alsaleh NB, Alkhudair N, Alzhrani R, Alshamsan A. Recent nanotechnology advancements to treat multidrug-resistance pancreatic cancer: Pre-clinical and clinical overview. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:933457. [PMID: 36091785 PMCID: PMC9449524 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.933457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) remains one of the most lethal and incurable forms of cancer and has a poor prognosis. One of the significant therapeutic challenges in PC is multidrug resistance (MDR), a phenomenon in which cancer cells develop resistance toward administered therapy. Development of novel therapeutic platforms that could overcome MDR in PC is crucial for improving therapeutic outcomes. Nanotechnology is emerging as a promising tool to enhance drug efficacy and minimize off-target responses via passive and/or active targeting mechanisms. Over the past decade, tremendous efforts have been made to utilize nanocarriers capable of targeting PC cells while minimizing off-target effects. In this review article, we first give an overview of PC and the major molecular mechanisms of MDR, and then we discuss recent advancements in the development of nanocarriers used to overcome PC drug resistance. In doing so, we explore the developmental stages of this research in both pre-clinical and clinical settings. Lastly, we discuss current challenges and gaps in the literature as well as potential future directions in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah K. Alshememry
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Nanobiotechnology Unit, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nasser B. Alsaleh
- Nanobiotechnology Unit, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nora Alkhudair
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rami Alzhrani
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Aws Alshamsan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Nanobiotechnology Unit, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- *Correspondence: Aws Alshamsan,
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