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Coq R, Watelain E, Castagna O. Temporal adaptation of the postural control following a prolonged fin swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05512-4. [PMID: 38802707 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05512-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Postural control deteriorates following a transition between two environments, highlighting a sensory conflict when returning to natural conditions. Aquatic immersion offers new perspectives for studying postural control adaptation in transitional situations. Our aim is to study immediate and post-task static postural control adaptation on land after a prolonged fin swimming exercise in total immersion. METHODS Standing static postural control was assessed in 14 professional or recreational SCUBA divers (11 men, 3 women; 33.21 ± 10.70 years), with eyes open and closed, before, immediately after, and in the following 20 min following a fully-immersed 45-min fin swimming exercise. Centre-of-pressure metrics (COP) including average position, amplitude, velocity, length and 95% ellipse were evaluated in medial-lateral (x-axis) and anterior-posterior (y-axis) directions with a force platform. The Romberg ratio was also assessed for each metric. RESULTS A two-way repeated measures analysis of variance revealed a significant effect of the measurement period on COPx vel (p = 0.01), COPy vel (p < 0.01) and Length (p < 0.01), and of the visual condition on COPy vel (p < 0.01) and Length (p < 0.01). Eyes closed measures were systematically higher than eyes open measures despite there being no significant difference in the Romberg ratio in all periods. Post-immersion, the velocity and total trajectory of the centre of pressure remained systematically lower than baseline values in both visual conditions. CONCLUSION Post-immersion, COP velocity and length significantly decreased, suggesting a sensory reweighting strategy potentially associated with ankle stiffening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi Coq
- Perception Unit, Military Biomedical Research Institute-IRBA, Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
| | | | - Olivier Castagna
- Underwater Research Team-ERRSO, Military Biomedical Research Institute-IRBA, Toulon, France.
- LAMHESS (UPR 6312), Université de Nice, Nice, France.
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2
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Silva MB, Martinho Fernandes LFR, Caetano E Souza RH, Rosa de Sá AA, Naves ELM. Analysis of ankle muscle activity: A study on static balance with eyes closed and high-heeled shoes. Foot (Edinb) 2024; 60:102100. [PMID: 38810470 DOI: 10.1016/j.foot.2024.102100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Changes in sensory afferent interfere with the control of postural stability by the central nervous system. Wearing high-heeled shoes is an example of an external disturbance that changes sensory inputs and results in several postural adjustments to control stability. Thus, our purpose is to investigate the influence of high-heeled shoes and visual absence on maintenance of static balance and on ankle muscle activity among young women. Our hypothesis is that the combination of high-heeled shoes with visual absence lead to an increase of postural sway and of levels of activation of the stabilizing ankle muscles. METHODS Nine volunteers remained in an unrestrained erect posture on a force platform for collecting of stabilometric and electromyographic parameters in four bipodal conditions: barefoot with open eyes, barefoot with closed eyes, with high heels and open eyes and with high heels and closed eyes. RESULTS When comparing the experimental condition open and closed eyes with high heels, there were significant differences for all stabilometric variables, except for the confidence ellipse area. Statistical differences were found for the medial gastrocnemius muscle in all comparison pairs with high heels. CONCLUSION The wearing high-heeled shoes showed to be the most influencing disturbance on static balance. Our findings suggest ankle muscle activity is adapted according to changes of the center of pressure sway and the wearing of high heels changes the muscle activation and postural sway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rhaíra Helena Caetano E Souza
- Assistive Technology Laboratory, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
| | - Angela Abreu Rosa de Sá
- Assistive Technology Laboratory, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil.
| | - Eduardo Lázaro Martins Naves
- Assistive Technology Laboratory, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
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3
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Bertrand-Charette M, Perron MP, da Silva RA, Beaulieu LD. Vibration-induced postural reactions: a scoping review on parameters and populations studied. Front Hum Neurosci 2024; 17:1307639. [PMID: 38234593 PMCID: PMC10791994 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1307639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective Mechanical vibration is an effective way for externally activating Ia primary endings of the muscle spindles and skin mechanoreceptors. Despite its popularity in proprioception and postural control studies, there is still no review covering the wide variety of vibration parameters or locations used in studies. The main purpose of this scoping review was thus to give an overview of general vibration parameters and to identify, if available, the rationale for justifying methodological choices concerning vibration parameters. Methods Three databases (Pubmed, CINHAL, and SPORTDiscus) were searched from inception to July 2022. Included articles were to focus on the study of muscle spindles and skin mechanoreceptors vibration in humans and assess postural control. Following inclusion, data regarding demographic information, populations, vibration parameters and rationale were extracted and summarized. Results One hundred forty-seven articles were included, mostly targeting lower extremities (n = 137) and adults (n = 126). The parameters used varied widely but were most often around 80 Hz, at an amplitude of 1 mm for 10-20 s. Regarding rationales, nearly 50% of the studies did not include any, whereas those including one mainly cited the same two studies, without elaborating specifically on the parameter's choice. Conclusion This scoping review provided a comprehensive description of the population recruited and parameters used for vibration protocols in current studies with humans. Despite many studies, there remain important gaps of knowledge that needs to be filled, especially for vibration amplitude and duration parameters in various populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël Bertrand-Charette
- BioNR Research Lab, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Département des Sciences de la Santé, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Pier Perron
- BioNR Research Lab, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Département des Sciences de la Santé, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Rubens A. da Silva
- BioNR Research Lab, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Département des Sciences de la Santé, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Centre Intégré de Santé et Services Sociaux du Saguenay—Lac-Saint-Jean (CIUSSS SLSJ), Specialized Geriatrics Services–La Baie Hospital, Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Louis-David Beaulieu
- BioNR Research Lab, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Département des Sciences de la Santé, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Saguenay, QC, Canada
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Robb KA, Perry SD. The topographical attenuation of cutaneous input is modulated at the ankle joint during gait. Exp Brain Res 2024; 242:149-161. [PMID: 37979067 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-023-06737-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
The attenuation of sensory inputs via various methods has been demonstrated to impair balance control and alter locomotor behavior during human walking; however, the effects of attenuating foot sole sensation under distinct areas of the foot sole on lower extremity motor output remains poorly understood. Thus, the purpose of this study was to attenuate cutaneous feedback via regional hypothermia under five different areas of the foot sole and investigate the resultant modulation of kinematic and muscle activity during level walking. Electromyography from eight lower leg muscles, kinematics, and location of center of pressure was recorded from 48 healthy young adults completing walking trials with normal and reduced cutaneous sensation from bilateral foot soles. The results of this study highlight the modulatory response of the tibialis anterior in terminal stance (propulsion and toe-off) and medial gastrocnemius muscle throughout the entire stance phase of gait. The topographical organization of foot sole skin in response to the attenuation of cutaneous feedback from different areas of the foot sole significantly modified locomotor activity. Furthermore, the locomotor response to cutaneous attenuation under the same regions that we previously facilitated with tactile feedback do not oppose each other, suggesting different physiological changes to foot sole skin generate unique gait behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Robb
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Ave. West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3C5, Canada.
| | - Stephen D Perry
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Ave. West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3C5, Canada
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Jabouille F, Billot M, Hermand E, Lemonnier E, Perrochon A. Balance rehabilitation for postural control in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A two-case report study. Physiother Theory Pract 2023; 39:658-666. [PMID: 34939886 DOI: 10.1080/09593985.2021.2017090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the effect of balance rehabilitation on postural control in both low and increased cognitive load conditions in two children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). METHODS Two children diagnosed with ASD participated in a 4-week personalized balance rehabilitation program with two sessions per week. We assessed postural control in two single task (ST) conditions with low cognitive load: Eyes Closed (EC), Eyes Open (EO); and in five increased cognitive load conditions. Those dual task (DT) conditions consisted of presenting images representing a neutral condition, sadness, anger, happiness, and fear. Postural control parameters (surface, velocity, medio-lateral and antero-posterior sway amplitudes of the center of pressure (CoP)) were collected by a posturographic platform before and after the balance rehabilitation. RESULTS The rehabilitation program resulted in a 30-96% improvement of postural control parameters in the ST condition for both participants. In DT, participant 1 progressed on all conditions while participant 2 progressed on 3 of the 5 conditions (sadness, anger and fear). CONCLUSION This suggests that these two children with ASD improved their balance control in both low and increased cognitive load conditions. These encouraging results need to be replicated before recommending balance rehabilitation as standard health rehabilitation in children with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Jabouille
- Ilfomer, Institut Limousin de Formation Aux Métiers de La Réadaptation, Université de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - Maxime Billot
- Prismatics Lab (Predictive Research in Spine/Neuromodulation Management and Thoracic Innovation/Cardiac Surgery), Poitiers University Hospital, 2 Rue de La Milétrie, 86000 Poitiers, France
| | - Eric Hermand
- Laboratoire Ea 7369 URePSSS (Unité de Recherche Pluridisciplinaire Sport, Santé, Société), Université Du Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque, France.,Laboratoire Ea 6310 Havae (Handicap Autonomie Vieillissement Activité Environnement), Université de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - Eric Lemonnier
- Centre Ressource Autisme, Hôpital Le Cluzeau, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - Anaick Perrochon
- Ilfomer, Institut Limousin de Formation Aux Métiers de La Réadaptation, Université de Limoges, Limoges, France.,Laboratoire Ea 6310 Havae (Handicap Autonomie Vieillissement Activité Environnement), Université de Limoges, Limoges, France
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Kadri MA, Bouchard E, Lauzier L, Mecheri H, Bégin W, Lavallière M, Massé-Alarie H, da Silva RA, Beaulieu LD. Distinctive phases and variability of vibration-induced postural reactions highlighted by center of pressure analysis. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0280835. [PMID: 36689435 PMCID: PMC9870114 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The vibration-induced postural reaction paradigm (VIB-PR) offers a unique way for investigating sensorimotor control mechanisms. Measures of VIB-PR are usually calculated from the whole VIB period, yet recent evidence proposed that distinctive mechanisms are likely at play between the early vs. later phases of the postural reaction. OBJECTIVES The present work verified if spatiotemporal analyses of center of pressure (COP) displacements can detect differences between these early/later phases of VIB-PR. Also, we further characterized the intra/inter-individual variability of COP measurements, since the underlying variability of VIB-PR remains largely unexplored. METHODS Twenty young volunteers realized two experimental conditions of bipodal stance with eyes closed: (i) bilateral VIB of tibialis anterior (TIB) and (ii) Achilles' (ACH) tendons. Each condition consisted of five trials and lasted 30 s as follows: 10 s baseline, 10 s VIB and 10 s post-VIB. Linear COP variables (antero-posterior (AP) amplitude & velocity) were computed for both VIB and post-VIB periods using the following time-windows: early 2 s, the later 8 s and the whole 10 s duration. Intra- and inter-individual variability were respectively estimated using the standard error of the measurement and the coefficient of variation. Both variability metrics were obtained using five vs. the first three trials. RESULTS Significant contrasts were found between time-windows for both VIB and post-VIB periods. COP variables were generally higher during the early 2 s phase compared to the later 8 s phase for both TIB [mean difference between 8 s- 2 s phases: Amplitude AP = -1.11 ± 1.14 cm during VIB and -2.99 ± 1.31 during post-VIB; Velocity AP = -1.17 ± 0.86 cm/s during VIB and -3.13 ± 1.31 cm/s during post-VIB] and ACH tendons [Amplitude AP = -0.37 ± 0.98 cm during VIB and -3.41 ± 1.20 during post-VIB; Velocity AP = -0.31 ± 0.59 cm/s during VIB and -3.89 ± 1.52 cm/s during post-VIB]. Most within- and between-subject variability scores were below 30% and using three instead of five trials had no impact on variability. VIB-PR patterns were quite similar within a same person, but variable behaviors were observed between individuals during the later phase. CONCLUSION Our study highlights the relevance of identifying and separately analyzing distinct phases within VIB-PR patterns, as well as characterizing how these patterns vary at the individual level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Abdelhafid Kadri
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
| | - Emilie Bouchard
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
| | - Lydiane Lauzier
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
| | - Hakim Mecheri
- Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité de travail, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - William Bégin
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
| | - Martin Lavallière
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
| | - Hugo Massé-Alarie
- Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Réadaptation et Intégration Sociale, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Rubens A. da Silva
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
- Services gériatriques spécialisés–Hôpital de la Baie, Centre Intégré de Santé et Services Sociaux du Saguenay—Lac-Saint-Jean, Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Louis-David Beaulieu
- Lab BioNR, Centre intersectoriel en santé durable, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
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Viseux FJF, Simoneau M, Billot M. A Comprehensive Review of Pain Interference on Postural Control: From Experimental to Chronic Pain. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2022; 58:medicina58060812. [PMID: 35744075 PMCID: PMC9230450 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58060812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Motor control, movement impairment, and postural control recovery targeted in rehabilitation could be affected by pain. The main objective of this comprehensive review is to provide a synthesis of the effect of experimental and chronic pain on postural control throughout the available literature. After presenting the neurophysiological pathways of pain, we demonstrated that pain, preferentially localized in the lower back or in the leg induced postural control alteration. Although proprioceptive and cortical excitability seem modified with pain, spinal modulation assessment might provide a new understanding of the pain phenomenon related to postural control. The literature highlights that the motor control of trunk muscles in patient presenting with lower back pain could be dichotomized in two populations, where the first over-activates the trunk muscles, and the second under-activates the trunk muscles; both generate an increase in tissue loading. Taking all these findings into account will help clinician to provide adapted treatment for managing both pain and postural control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric J. F. Viseux
- Centre d’Evaluation et de Traitement de la Douleur (CETD), Hôpital Jean Bernard, Centre Hospitalier de Valenciennes, F-59322 Valenciennes, France
- Département Sciences de l’Homme et du Vivant (SHV), Université Polytechnique Hauts-de-France (UPHF), LAMIH, CNRS, UMR 8201, F-59313 Valenciennes, France
- Correspondence:
| | - Martin Simoneau
- Département de Kinésiologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada;
- Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Réadaptation et Intégration Sociale (CIRRIS) du CIUSSS de la Capitale Nationale, Québec, QC G1M 2S8, Canada
| | - Maxime Billot
- PRISMATICS Lab (Predictive Research in Spine/Neuromodulation Management and Thoracic Innovation/Cardiac Surgery), Poitiers University Hospital, F-86000 Poitiers, France;
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Papavasileiou A, Mademli L, Hatzitaki V, Patikas DA. Electromyographic responses to unexpected Achilles tendon vibration-induced perturbations during standing in young and older people. Exp Brain Res 2022; 240:1017-1027. [PMID: 35171309 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-022-06309-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate age-related differences in electromyographic (EMG) responses to unexpected Achilles tendon vibration (ATV) perturbations while standing blindfold. ATV with variable and random duration (12-15 s) and rest periods (20-24 s) was applied on 18 young and 16 older volunteers. The anterior/posterior center of pressure (CoP) and the soleus (SOL) and tibialis anterior (TA) EMG were analyzed for 1 s before and 8 s after the ATV onset and offset. ATV induced a posterior shift of CoP in both groups, with more pronounced shift in the older group. During ATV onset, the older group demonstrated less SOL and more TA EMG increase compared to the young group. During the first 0.5 s of ATV offset, SOL EMG was decreased in both age groups, while TA showed a burst of EMG activity that was greater in the older group. No difference in the latencies of EMG peaks or valleys was observed between the groups. It is concluded that ATV induces greater posterior CoP shift in older adults, and they adopt a recovery strategy, characterized by a decreased SOL activation and an increased TA activation. These differences are possibly attributed to the increased fear of falling, decreased limits of stability and reduced capacity of older people to reweight their sensory inflow when proprioception is distorted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Papavasileiou
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110, Ag. Ioannis, Serres, Greece
| | - Lida Mademli
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110, Ag. Ioannis, Serres, Greece
| | - Vassilia Hatzitaki
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dimitrios A Patikas
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110, Ag. Ioannis, Serres, Greece.
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9
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Ankle complex proprioception and plantar cutaneous sensation in older women with different physical activity levels. Exp Brain Res 2022; 240:981-989. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06273-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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10
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Unver B, Bek N. Plantar sensation, plantar pressure, and postural stability alterations and effects of visual status in older adults. Somatosens Mot Res 2021; 39:55-61. [PMID: 34719316 DOI: 10.1080/08990220.2021.1994940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Ageing leads to plantar sensation and pressure alterations and poor postural control. The aim of this study was to compare the plantar sensation and static plantar pressure distribution between young and older adults. A secondary aim was to investigate the effect of ageing and visual status on postural stability. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty older subjects and 43 young adult individuals participated in the study. Plantar light touch sensation was evaluated using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. Static plantar pressure and postural stability were assessed with the WinTrack® Pedobarography device. RESULTS Plantar sensation thresholds of the older individuals were higher compared to the young in all plantar regions (p < 0.001). The plantar contact area was greater in older individuals (p < 0.001). Maximum plantar pressure of midfoot was higher and maximum plantar pressure of the rearfoot and whole foot was less in older individuals during quiet stance (p < 0.05). The main effects of group and visual condition were significant for mean latero-lateral and antero-posterior sway speed with large effect sizes (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The sensation of all plantar regions reduced, the rearfoot plantar pressure decreased, and the midfoot plantar pressure increased in older individuals compared to young. Postural stability was reduced in the older individuals, and their postural control was more affected by the eliminated visual information compared to the young. Increased plantar contact area and midfoot plantar pressure may be related to decreased MLA height in older individuals. Older individuals may need visual information more to maintain postural control because of reduced plantar sensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banu Unver
- Faculty of Health Science, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Lokman Hekim University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nilgun Bek
- Faculty of Health Science, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Lokman Hekim University, Ankara, Turkey
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11
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Asai H, Inaoka PT. The role of the pressure information from the heel on the perception of the backward-leaning standing position. Neurosci Lett 2021; 750:135752. [PMID: 33610672 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to clarify the functional role of the heel pressure information for perceiving a backward-leaning position through a decrease in sensory information using local cooling on the heel in healthy participants (n = 11). The position of the center of pressure in the anteroposterior direction (CoPy position) while standing was represented as the percentage distance (%FL) from the hindmost point of the heel (0 %FL) in relation to the foot length. The most backward-leaning position was measured under cool-heel condition and normal-heel condition. The perceptibility of six reference positions (45 %FL, 40 %FL, 35 %FL, 30 %FL, 25 %FL, and 20 %FL) was evaluated with regard to the reproducibility of these positions under both heel conditions. The most backward-leaning position under cool-heel condition was located significantly further backward than that under normal-heel condition. The absolute error at 25 %FL under cool-heel condition was significantly larger than that under normal-heel condition. The sensory information from the heels may have a decisive meaning in the perception of the most backward-leaning position. At 25 %FL, there may be no other sources of sensory information for sensory reweighting aside from the heel pressure for position perception under cooled condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Asai
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate Course of Rehabilitation Science, School of Health Sciences, College of Medical, Pharmaceutical, and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.
| | - Pleiades T Inaoka
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate Course of Rehabilitation Science, School of Health Sciences, College of Medical, Pharmaceutical, and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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Billot M, Calvani R, Urtamo A, Sánchez-Sánchez JL, Ciccolari-Micaldi C, Chang M, Roller-Wirnsberger R, Wirnsberger G, Sinclair A, Vaquero-Pinto N, Jyväkorpi S, Öhman H, Strandberg T, Schols JMGA, Schols AMWJ, Smeets N, Topinkova E, Michalkova H, Bonfigli AR, Lattanzio F, Rodríguez-Mañas L, Coelho-Júnior H, Broccatelli M, D'Elia ME, Biscotti D, Marzetti E, Freiberger E. Preserving Mobility in Older Adults with Physical Frailty and Sarcopenia: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations for Physical Activity Interventions. Clin Interv Aging 2020; 15:1675-1690. [PMID: 32982201 PMCID: PMC7508031 DOI: 10.2147/cia.s253535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most widely conserved hallmarks of aging is a decline in functional capabilities. Mobility loss is particularly burdensome due to its association with negative health outcomes, loss of independence and disability, and the heavy impact on quality of life. Recently, a new condition, physical frailty and sarcopenia, has been proposed to define a critical stage in the disabling cascade. Physical frailty and sarcopenia are characterized by weakness, slowness, and reduced muscle mass, yet with preserved ability to move independently. One of the strategies that have shown some benefits in combatting mobility loss and its consequences for older adults is physical activity. Here, we describe the opportunities and challenges for the development of physical activity interventions in people with physical frailty and sarcopenia. The aim of this article is to review age-related physio(patho)logical changes that impact mobility in old age and to provide recommendations and procedures in accordance with the available literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Billot
- Clinical Gerontology, University Hospital of Limoges, Limoges, France.,PRISMATICS (Predictive Research in Spine/Neurostimulation Management and Thoracic Innovation in Cardiac Surgery), Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France
| | - Riccardo Calvani
- Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy.,Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "Agostino Gemelli" IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Annele Urtamo
- University of Helsinki, Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Unit of Primary Health Care, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Milan Chang
- Faculty of Health Promotion, Sports and Leisure Studies, School of Education, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland.,The Icelandic Gerontological Research Center, Landspitali University Hospital and University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | | | - Gerhard Wirnsberger
- Medical University of Graz, Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Graz, Austria
| | - Alan Sinclair
- Foundation for Diabetes Research in Older People, Diabetes Frail Ltd., Luton, UK
| | | | - Satu Jyväkorpi
- University of Helsinki, Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Unit of Primary Health Care, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Öhman
- University of Helsinki, Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Unit of Primary Health Care, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Timo Strandberg
- University of Helsinki, Clinicum, Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki University Hospital, Medicine and Rehabilitation, Helsinki, Finland.,University of Oulu, Center for Life Course Health Research, Oulu, Finland
| | - Jos M G A Schols
- Department of Health Services Research, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Annemie M W J Schols
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Nick Smeets
- Department of Health & Fitness, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Eva Topinkova
- First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Michalkova
- Faculty of Social and Health Sciences, South Bohemian University, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Maria Elena D'Elia
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "Agostino Gemelli" IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Damiano Biscotti
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "Agostino Gemelli" IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuele Marzetti
- Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy.,Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "Agostino Gemelli" IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Ellen Freiberger
- Institute for Biomedicine of Aging, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nürnberg, Germany
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13
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The optimal whole body vibration frequency effects on postural responses in soccer players. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-020-00621-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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14
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Asai H. Functional Role of the Somatosensory Information to Perceive the Standing Position in the Anteroposterior Direction. Somatosens Mot Res 2020. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.91737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Sensory Reweighting During Bipedal Quiet Standing in Adolescents. Motor Control 2020; 24:383-396. [PMID: 32413840 DOI: 10.1123/mc.2018-0119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A cross-sectional, prospective, between-subjects design was used in this study to establish the differences in sensory reweighting of postural control among different ages during adolescence. A total of 153 adolescents (five age groups; 13-17 years old) performed bipedal standing in three sensory conditions (i.e., with visual restriction, vestibular disturbance, and proprioceptive disturbance). Center of pressure displacement signals were measured in mediolateral and anteroposterior directions to characterize reweighting in the sensory system in static postural control when sensory information is disturbed or restricted during adolescent growth. The results indicate a development of postural control, showing large differences between subjects of 13-14 years old and older adolescents. A critical change was found in sensory reweighting during bipedal stance with disturbance of proprioceptive information at 15 years old. Adolescents of 13-14 years old showed less postural control and performance than older adolescents during the disturbance of proprioceptive information. Moreover, the results demonstrated that the visual system achieves its development around 15-16 years old. In conclusion, this research suggests that a difference of sensory reweighting under this type of sensorial condition and sensory reweight systems would seem to achieve stabilization at the age of 15.
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di Cagno A, Giombini A, Iuliano E, Moffa S, Caliandro T, Parisi A, Borrione P, Calcagno G, Fiorilli G. Acute effect of whole body vibration on postural control in congenitally blind subjects: a preliminary evidence. Disabil Rehabil 2018; 40:2632-2636. [DOI: 10.1080/09638288.2017.1353650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra di Cagno
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Arrigo Giombini
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Enzo Iuliano
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Stefano Moffa
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Tiziana Caliandro
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Attilio Parisi
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Borrione
- Department of Motor, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Calcagno
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Giovanni Fiorilli
- Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
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17
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Characterizing postural oscillation in children and adolescents with hereditary sensorimotor neuropathy. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204949. [PMID: 30304007 PMCID: PMC6179247 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Charcot Marie Tooth disease (CMT) has negative functional impact on postural control of children; however, it has not been widely studied. Stabilometry can provide insights about postural control and guide preventive interventions in immature perceptual and musculoskeletal systems as those seen in children with CMT. This cross-sectional study aimed to identify and interpret stabilometric variables that reflect the postural control of children with CMT. 53 subjects (age 6-17) were assigned to one of the two groups: CMT (15 males and 14 females with CMT) or Control (13 males and 11 females healthy). Quiet standing was tested in different conditions: with open and closed eyes on regular surface (open-regular, closed-regular) and foam surface (open-foam, closed-foam) using a force platform. The minimum of 2 and maximum of 3 trials of 30 seconds for each test condition provided the classical stabilometric variables and Romberg Quotient (RQv). CMT group showed increase of confidence ellipse area, mean velocity, mediolateral and anteroposterior velocities associated with decreased mean body oscillation frequency, as the complexity of tasks increased. CMT postural deficit was identified by greater and faster sway associated with these lower frequencies, when compared to Control.
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18
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Ferguson OW, Polskaia N, Tokuno CD. The effects of foot cooling on postural muscle responses to an unexpected loss of balance. Hum Mov Sci 2017; 54:240-247. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 04/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Bazanova OM, Kholodina NV, Nikolenko ED, Payet J. Training of support afferentation in postmenopausal women. Int J Psychophysiol 2017; 122:65-74. [PMID: 28476511 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We have recently shown a diminishing of the Menopause Index in old-aged women who underwent special training directed at the enhancement of support afferentation by increasing the plantar forefoot sensitivity (Bazanova et al., 2015). Based on these results we hypothesized, that purposeful training of support afferentation through stimulation of plantar graviceptors by Aikido practice will decrease excessive postural and psychoemotional tension not only in rest condition, but during cognitive and manual task performance too. Fluency of cognitive and motor task performance, EEG alpha power as an index of neuronal efficiency of cognitive control, amount of alpha power suppression as a visual activation measure and EMG power of forehead muscles as a sign of psychoemotional tension were compared in three groups of post-menopausal women: i) 8years training with forefeet support afferentation with Aikido practice (A), ii) 8years fitness training (F) and iii) no dedicated fitness training for past 8years (N). Simultaneous stabilometry, EEG, and frontal EMG recording were performed in sitting and standing up position in eyes closed and eyes open condition. Recording done at rest and while performing cognitive and finger motor tasks. We compared studied parameters between groups with one- and two-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, followed by post hoc two-tailed unpaired t-tests. The fluency of tasks performance, EMG and alpha-EEG-activity displayed similar values in all groups in a sitting position. Center of pressure (CoP) sway length, velocity and energy demands for saving balance increased when standing up, more in group N than in groups F and A (all contrasts p values<0.002, η2>0.89). Post hoc t-tests showed increased fluency in standing in both Aikido (p<0.01) and Fitness (p<0.05) subjects in relation to untrained subjects. Increasing fluency in motor task performance was in parallel with enhancing the EEG alpha-2-power and decreasing EMG power only in A group (η2>0.77). Fluency in motor task and alpha EEG power decreased, but frontal EMG power increased in response to standing in untrained women (group N) and did not change in F group. Post hoc t-tests showed that EEG amount of alpha-2 power suppression in response to visual activation and frontal EMG power was lower in A than F and N groups (p<0.004) during motor task performance in the standing position. These results were interpreted as showing that training of forefoot plantar surface sensitivity in postmenopausal women decreases levels of psychoemotional tension and increases cognitive control caused by the psychomotor and postural challenges. Thus, Aikido training aimed at learning coordination between manual task performance and balance control by increasing the plantar support zones sensation decreases the cost of maintained vertical position and dependence of motor coordination on visual contribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- O M Bazanova
- Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine, Timakova, 4, Novosibirsk 630117, Russia; Novosibirsk State University, Russian Federation.
| | - N V Kholodina
- Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine, Timakova, 4, Novosibirsk 630117, Russia
| | - E D Nikolenko
- Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine, Timakova, 4, Novosibirsk 630117, Russia
| | - J Payet
- Kyoto Aikido Mugenjuku, Kyoto, Japan
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20
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Maxime B, Normand T, Léandre GL, Mathieu GR, Martin S. Reduced plantar sole sensitivity facilitates early adaptation to a visual rotation pointing task when standing upright. J Hum Kinet 2016; 52:65-74. [PMID: 28149394 PMCID: PMC5260518 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2015-0194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are capable of pointing to a target with accuracy. However, when vision is distorted through a visual rotation or mirror-reversed vision, the performance is initially degraded and thereafter improves with practice. There are suggestions this gradual improvement results from a sensorimotor recalibration involving initial gating of the somatosensory information from the pointing hand. In the present experiment, we examined if this process interfered with balance control by asking participants to point to targets with a visual rotation from a standing posture. This duality in processing sensory information (i.e., gating sensory signals from the hand while processing those arising from the control of balance) could generate initial interference leading to a degraded pointing performance. We hypothesized that if this is the case, the attenuation of plantar sole somatosensory information through cooling could reduce the sensorimotor interference, and facilitate the early adaptation (i.e. improvement in the pointing task). Results supported this hypothesis. These observations suggest that processing sensory information for balance control interferes with the sensorimotor recalibration process imposed by a pointing task when vision is rotated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Billot Maxime
- Faculté de médecine, Département de kinésiologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada; Vieillissement, Centre de recherche FRSQ du Centre hospitalier affilié universitaire de Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Teasdale Normand
- Faculté de médecine, Département de kinésiologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada; Vieillissement, Centre de recherche FRSQ du Centre hospitalier affilié universitaire de Québec, Québec, Canada
| | | | | | - Simoneau Martin
- Faculté de médecine, Département de kinésiologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada; Vieillissement, Centre de recherche FRSQ du Centre hospitalier affilié universitaire de Québec, Québec, Canada
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21
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Germano AMC, Schmidt D, Milani TL. Effects of hypothermically reduced plantar skin inputs on anticipatory and compensatory balance responses. BMC Neurosci 2016; 17:41. [PMID: 27357844 PMCID: PMC4928340 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-016-0279-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anticipatory and compensatory balance responses are used by the central nervous system (CNS) to preserve balance, hence they significantly contribute to the understanding of physiological mechanisms of postural control. It is well established that various sensory systems contribute to the regulation of balance. However, it is still unclear which role each individual sensory system (e.g. plantar mechanoreceptors) plays in balance regulation. This becomes also evident in various patient populations, for instance in diabetics with reduced plantar sensitivity. To investigate these sensory mechanisms, approaches like hypothermia to deliberately reduce plantar afferent input have been applied. But there are some limitations regarding hypothermic procedures in previous studies: Not only plantar aspects of the feet might be affected and maintaining the hypothermic effect during data collection. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to induce a permanent and controlled plantar hypothermia and to examine its effects on anticipatory and compensatory balance responses. We hypothesized deteriorations in anticipatory and compensatory balance responses as increased center of pressure excursions (COP) and electromyographic activity (EMG) in response to the hypothermic plantar procedure. 52 healthy and young subjects (23.6 ± 3.0 years) performed balance tests (unexpected perturbations). Subjects’ foot soles were exposed to three temperatures while standing upright: 25, 12 and 0 °C. COP and EMG were analyzed during two intervals of anticipatory and one interval of compensatory balance responses (intervals 0, 1 and 2, respectively). Results Similar plantar temperatures confirmed the successful implementation of the thermal platform. No significant COP and EMG differences were found for the anticipatory responses (intervals 0 and 1) under the hyperthermia procedure. Parameters in interval 2 showed generally decreased values in response to cooling. Conclusion No changes in anticipatory responses were found possibly due to sensory compensation processes of other intact afferents. Decreased compensatory responses may be interpreted as the additional balance threat, creating a more cautious behavior causing the CNS to generate a kind of over-compensatory behavior. Contrary to the expectations, there were different anticipatory and compensatory responses after reduced plantar inputs, thereby, revealing alterations in the organization of CNS inputs and outputs according to different task difficulties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andresa M C Germano
- Department of Human Locomotion, Institute of Human Movement Science and Health, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 29a, 09126, Chemnitz, Germany.
| | - Daniel Schmidt
- Department of Human Locomotion, Institute of Human Movement Science and Health, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 29a, 09126, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Thomas L Milani
- Department of Human Locomotion, Institute of Human Movement Science and Health, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 29a, 09126, Chemnitz, Germany
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Hoch MC, Russell DM. Plantar cooling does not affect standing balance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Gait Posture 2016; 43:1-8. [PMID: 26669944 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to critically appraise and synthesize the literature to determine if cooling the plantar surface of the foot is an effective method of inducing postural control alterations in healthy individuals. Specific variables that were evaluated within the meta-analysis included (1) the duration of the plantar cooling intervention, (2) the stance type during postural control assessment, and (3) the role of visual input. A computerized search of four electronic databases from inception to March 2015 was performed to identify studies which examined the effects of plantar cooling on postural control in healthy individuals. A critical appraisal of the methodological quality of the included studies was performed using an appraisal criteria instrument previously used for assessing biomechanics studies. The literature search yielded 88 references of which 7 were deemed relevant and included in the systematic review and meta-analysis. A single, overall random-effects model meta-analysis of all study variables were performed; as well as, separate meta-analyses for each study variable. Across the 7 studies, the overall effect was 0.028 (95% CI=-0.177, 0.234; p=0.78) indicating that cooling the plantar surface had a very small effect on postural control. Similar results were obtained when data were examined based on study quality, plantar cooling intervention duration, stance type during postural control assessment, and the presence of visual input. Therefore, cooling the plantar surface of the foot had a very weak, non-significant effect on standing balance despite the anesthetic effects identified in each study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C Hoch
- School of Physical Therapy & Athletic Training, Old Dominion University, 3118 Health Sciences Building, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA.
| | - Daniel M Russell
- School of Physical Therapy & Athletic Training, Old Dominion University, 3118 Health Sciences Building, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA.
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Techniques and Methods for Testing the Postural Function in Healthy and Pathological Subjects. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:891390. [PMID: 26640800 PMCID: PMC4659957 DOI: 10.1155/2015/891390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The different techniques and methods employed as well as the different quantitative and qualitative variables measured in order to objectify postural control are often chosen without taking into account the population studied, the objective of the postural test, and the environmental conditions. For these reasons, the aim of this review was to present and justify the different testing techniques and methods with their different quantitative and qualitative variables to make it possible to precisely evaluate each sensory, central, and motor component of the postural function according to the experiment protocol under consideration. The main practical and technological methods and techniques used in evaluating postural control were explained and justified according to the experimental protocol defined. The main postural conditions (postural stance, visual condition, balance condition, and test duration) were also analyzed. Moreover, the mechanistic exploration of the postural function often requires implementing disturbing postural conditions by using motor disturbance (mechanical disturbance), sensory stimulation (sensory manipulation), and/or cognitive disturbance (cognitive task associated with maintaining postural balance) protocols. Each type of disturbance was tackled in order to facilitate understanding of subtle postural control mechanisms and the means to explore them.
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