Can Anticoagulated Patients be Discharged Home Safely from the Emergency Department after Minor Head Injury?

In old anticoagulated patients with mild traumatic brain injury, a 24-h observation period should not be recommended without evidence of a clear benefit: a retrospective study of delayed hemorrhagic versus iatrogenic complications

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a common cause of admission to the Emergency Department (ED). Many patients are elderly on oral anticoagulant therapy (OAT) at increased risk of immediate and delayed intracranial hemorrhage (ICH). To investigate the frequency of delayed ICH (DICH) in old patients with mTBI in OAT and the occurrence of complications related to the ED stay. In this single-center retrospective study, we recruited all patients in OAT aged 65 and over, admitted for mTBI to the ED of our Hospital in Florence from March 2019 to February 2021. Clinical variables were collected and cranial computed tomography (CT) scans reviewed. The primary outcome was the frequency of DICH occurring within 30 days since the trauma after a first negative CT. Secondary outcomes included need of neurosurgical intervention and death for DICH, and hospital-related complications. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 22). Among 363 enrolled patients, there were 31 acute ICH (8.5%) at the first CT scan, while in the 316 negative included patients, 10 DICH (3.2%) were identified. Among the latter, no neurosurgical treatment, or death due to ICH occurred. Overall, 25 cases (6.9%) had iatrogenic complications during the 24-h observation period, often serious, such as respiratory failure after sedation due to restlessness, or COVID-19 infection. The low frequency of DICH and the occurrence of several iatrogenic complications suggest that the risk-benefit ratio of a 24-h ED observation is not advantageous in elderly with mTBI.

Minor head injury in anticoagulated patients: Outcomes and analysis of clinical predictors. A prospective study

BACKGROUND

The optimal management of patients taking oral anticoagulants who experience minor head injury (MHI) is unclear. The availability of validated protocols and reliable predictors of prognosis would be of great benefit. We investigated clinical factors as predictors of clinical outcomes and intracranial injury (ICI).

METHODS

We conducted a single-cohort, prospective, observational study in an ED. Our structured clinical pathway included a first head CT scan, 24 h observation and a second CT scan. The primary outcome was the occurrence of MHI-related death or re-admission to ED at day +30. The secondary outcome was the rate of delayed ICI (dICI), defined as second positive CT scan after a first negative CT scan. We assessed some clinical predictors derived from guidelines and clinical prediction rules as potential risk factors for the outcomes.

RESULTS

450 patients with a negative first CT scan who underwent a second CT scan composed our 'study population'. The rate of the primary outcome was 4%. The rate of the secondary outcome was 4.7%. Upon univariate and multivariate analysis no statistically significant predictors for the outcomes were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Previous retrospective studies showed a lot of negative predictive factors for anticoagulated patients suffering a minor head injury. In our prospective study no clinical factors emerged as predictors of poor clinical outcomes and dICI. So, even if we confirmed a low rate of adverse outcomes, the best management of these patients in ED remains not so clear and future trials are needed.

Minimal is not minor also in patients with mild traumatic brain injury on oral direct anticoagulant therapy

Currently, all patients, regardless of the type of head injury, should undergo a head computerized tomography (CT) if on oral anticoagulant therapy. The aim of the study was to assess the different incidences of intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) between patients with minor head injury (mHI) and patients with mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and whether there were differences in the risk of death at 30 days as a result of trauma or neurosurgery. A retrospective multicenter observational study was conducted from January 1, 2016, to February 1, 2020. All patients on DOACs therapy who suffered head trauma and underwent a head CT were extracted from the computerized databases. Patients were divided into two groups MTBI vs mHI all in DOACs treatment. Whether a difference in the incidence of post-traumatic ICH was present was investigated, and pre- and post-traumatic risk factors were compared between the two groups to assess the possible association with ICH risk by propensity score matching. 1425 with an MTBI in DOACs were enrolled. Of these, 80.1% (1141/1425) had an mHI and 19.9% (284/1425) had an MTBI. Of these, 16.5% (47/284) patients with MTBI and 3.3% (38/1141) with mHI reported post-traumatic ICH. After propensity score matching, ICH was consistently found to be more associated with patients with MTBI than with mHI (12.5% vs 5.4%, p = 0.027). Risk factors associated with immediate ICH in mHI patients were high energy impact, previous neurosurgery, trauma above the clavicles, post-traumatic vomiting and headache. Patients on MTBI (5.4%) were found to be more associated with ICH than those with mHI (0.0%, p = 0.002). also when the need for neurosurgery or death within 30 days were considered. Patients on DOACs with mHI have a lower risk of presenting with post-traumatic ICH than patients with MTBI. Furthermore, patients with mHI have a lower risk of death or neurosurgery than patients with MTBI, despite the presence of ICH.

Findings on Repeat Posttraumatic Brain Computed Tomography Scans in Older Patients With Minimal Head Trauma and the Impact of Existing Antithrombotic Use

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the utility of routine rescanning of older, mild head trauma patients with an initial negative brain computed tomography (CT), who is on a preinjury antithrombotic (AT) agent by assessing the rate of delayed intracranial hemorrhage (dICH), need for surgery, and attributable mortality.

METHODS

Participating centers were trained and provided data collection instruments per institutional review board-approved protocols. Data were obtained from manual chart review and electronic medical record download. Adults ≥55 years seen at Level I/II Trauma Centers, between 2017 and 2019 with suspected head trauma, Glasgow Coma Scale 14 to 15, negative initial brain CT, and no other Abbreviated Injury Scale injuries >2 were identified, grouped by preinjury AT therapy (AT- or AT+) and compared on dICH rate, need for operative neurosurgical intervention, and attributable mortality using univariate analysis (α=.05).

RESULTS

A total of 2,950 patients from 24 centers were enrolled; 280 (9.5%) had a repeat brain CT. In those rescanned, the dICH rate was 15/126 (11.9%) for AT- and 6/154 (3.9%) in AT+. Assuming nonrescanned patients did not suffer clinically meaningful dICH, the dICH rate would be 15/2001 (0.7%) for AT- and 6/949 (0.6%) for AT+. No surgical operations were done for dICH. All-cause mortality was 9/2950 (0.3%) and attributable mortality was 1/2950 (0.03%). The attributable death was an AT+, dICH patient whose family declined intervention.

CONCLUSION

In older patients with an initial Glasgow Coma Scale of 14 to 15 and a negative initial brain CT scan, the dICH rate is low (<1%) and of minimal clinical consequence, regardless of AT use. In addition, no patient had operative neurosurgical intervention. Therefore, routine rescanning is not supported based on the results of this study.

Analysis of Clinical and Laboratory Risk Factors of Post-Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage in Patients on Direct Oral Anticoagulants with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: An Observational Multicenter Cohort

BACKGROUND

Assessing the risk of intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) in patients with a mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) who are taking direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) is challenging. Currently, extensive use of computed tomography (CT) is routine in the emergency department (ED).

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate whether the clinical and laboratory characteristics presented at the ED evaluation can also estimate the risk of post-traumatic ICH in DOAC-treated patients with MTBI.

METHODS

A retrospective observational study was conducted in three EDs in Italy from January 1, 2016 to March 15, 2020. All patients treated with DOACs who were evaluated for an MTBI in the ED were enrolled. The primary outcome of the study was the presence of post-traumatic ICH in the head CT performed in the ED.

RESULTS

Of 930 patients on DOACs with MTBI who were enrolled, 6.8% (63 of 930) had a post-traumatic ICH and 1.5% (14 of 930) were treated with surgery or died as a result of the ICH. None of the laboratory factors were associated with an increased risk of ICH. On multivariate analysis, previous neurosurgical intervention, major trauma dynamic, post-traumatic loss of consciousness, post-traumatic amnesia, Glasgow Coma Scale score of 14, and evidence of trauma above the clavicles were associated with a higher risk of post-traumatic ICH. The net clinical benefit provided by risk factor assessment appears superior to the strategy of performing CT on all DOAC-treated patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessment of the clinical characteristics presented at ED admission can help identify DOAC-treated patients with MTBI who are at risk of ICH.

The state of the art of the management of anticoagulated patients with mild traumatic brain injury in the Emergency Department

The effects of Oral Anticoagulation Therapy (OAT) in older patients who suffered a mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) are widely debated but still strong guidelines are lacking and clinical approaches and management are sometimes heterogeneous. Different predictors of adverse outcomes were identified in the literature but their use in the decision-making process is unclear. Moreover, there is no consensus on the appropriate length of stay in the Observation Unit nor on the continuation of OAT, even if the diagnosis of life-threatening delayed post-traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage is rare. The recurrence of a control CT scan is often needless. This review aims to summarize recent scientific literature focusing on patients with mTBI taking OAT and to identify crucial questions on the topic to suggest a best clinical practice.

The utility of a second head CT scan after a negative initial CT scan in head trauma patients on new direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs)

BACKGROUND

New direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) are commonly used in the management of atrial fibrillation and VTE. Currently, there is no strong evidence to support the current practice of routinely repeating computed tomography (CT) head in anticoagulated patients within 24 hours after their first negative CT scan to assess for new and delayed intracranial hemorrhage (ICH). Our hypothesis is that the vast majority will not have new CT scan findings of ICH and those who do would not require any further intervention.

METHODS

This is retrospective cohort study. IRB approval was obtained. Subjects included adults age ≥ 18 taking DOACs who presented to our level III trauma center with confirmed or suspected blunt head trauma between August 2013 and October 2019 and received at least one head CT scans.

RESULTS

498 Patient encounters met inclusion criteria. Only 19 patients (3.8%) had positive traumatic ICH on the initial CT head. Those had a higher ISS. 420 out of 479 initial negative CT encounters received a second CT head. Only 2 (0.5%) had delayed positive second CT scan for ICH. 95%CI [0.06%, 1.7%] Patients who developed a new ICH on the second CT head after an initial negative CT scan had a lower Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) on presentation and a higher ISS. None of those patients required neurosurgical intervention CONCLUSION: Our data suggests that the risk of developing a new or delayed traumatic ICH for patients on DOAC on a second CT head within 24 hours following an initial negative CT is very low and when present did not require neurosurgical intervention and thus does not support routinely obtaining a repeat CT head within 24 hours after a negative initial CT scan. Patients presenting with lower GCS and higher ISS had a higher chance of having a delayed ICH.

Predictors of post-traumatic complication of mild brain injury in anticoagulated patients: DOACs are safer than VKAs

Although mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) in people on oral anticoagulant treatment (OAT) is a frequent challenge for Emergency Department (ED), strong guidelines recommendations are lacking. In the attempt to assess the safety profile of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) versus vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), we have recruited 473 patients with a MTBI on OAT (43.6% males; age 81.8 ± 8.7 years), admitted to the Pisa's University Hospital ED (Jan 2016-Oct 2018). All patients underwent a head CT scan with those with no sign of acute bleedings remaining under clinical observation for the ensuing 24 h. Fifty patients (10.6%, 95% CI: 8.1-13.7%) had immediate intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), with a prevalence of patient-important outcomes due to immediate ICH of 1.1% (95% CI 0.4-2.4%); 3 patients died (0.6%, 95% CI 0.2-1.8) and 2 required neurosurgical intervention. Immediate ICHs were more frequent in VKA-treated than in DOAC-treated patients (15.9 vs. 6.4%. RR 2.5. 95%CI 1.4-4.4. p < 0.05). Multivariate analysis identified that post-traumatic amnesia, evidence of trauma above clavicles, high blood glucose, high blood pressure (BP) at arrival, and low prothrombin activity were predictors of immediate ICH. The prevalence of delayed ICH was 1.0% (95%CI 0.4-2.5%) without differences between DOACs and VKAs. Despite ICH being a frequent complication of MTBI in patients on OAT, immediate and delayed patient-important outcomes are rare. DOACs have a better safety profile than VKAs. Simple clinical parameters such as blood pressure at arrival or blood glucose might provide useful predictors of immediate ICH.Trial registration number: 11924_CIPRIANO. Local ethics committee approval number 33096.

Delayed Intracranial Hemorrhage in Patients with Head Trauma and Antithrombotic Therapy

Background: Delayed intracranial hemorrhage can occur up to several weeks after head trauma and was reported more frequently in patients with antithrombotic therapy. Due to the risk of delayed intracranial hemorrhage, some hospitals follow extensive observation and cranial computed tomography (CT) protocols for patients with head trauma, while others discharge asymptomatic patients after negative CT. Methods: We retrospectively analyzed data on patients with head trauma and antithrombotic therapy without pathologies on their initial CT. During the observation period, we followed a protocol of routine repeat CT before discharge for patients using vitamin K antagonists, clopidogrel or direct oral anticoagulants. Results: 793 patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) was the most common antithrombotic therapy (46.4%), followed by vitamin K antagonists (VKA) (32.2%) and Clopidogrel (10.8%). We observed 11 delayed hemorrhages (1.2%) in total. The group of 390 patients receiving routine repeat CT showed nine delayed hemorrhages (2.3%). VKA were used in 6 of these 11 patients. One patient needed an urgent decompressive craniectomy while the other patients were discharged after an extended observation period. The patient requiring surgical intervention due to delayed hemorrhage showed neurological deterioration during the observation period. Conclusions: Routine repeat CT scans without neurological deterioration are not necessary if patients are observed in a clinical setting. Patients using ASA as single antithrombotic therapy do not require in-hospital observation after a negative CT scan.

Direct Oral Anticoagulant Treatment and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Risk of Early and Delayed Bleeding and the Severity of Injuries Compared with Vitamin K Antagonists

BACKGROUND

The risk of intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) in patients taking direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) after mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the differences in the risk of developing early, delayed, and comprehensive bleeding after MTBI among patients treated with DOACs as compared with those treated with vitamin K antagonists (VKAs).

METHODS

All MTBI patients taking oral anticoagulants in our emergency department between June 2017 and August 2018 were included. All patients on oral anticoagulants underwent immediate cerebral computed tomography (CT) and a second CT scan after 24 h of clinical observation.

RESULTS

There were 451 patients enrolled: 268 were on VKAs and 183 on DOACs. Of the DOAC-treated patients, 7.7% (14/183) presented overall intracranial bleeding, compared with 14.9% (40/268) of VKA-treated patients (p = 0.026). Early bleeding was present in 5.5% (10/183) of DOAC-treated patients and in 11.6% (31/268) of VKA-treated patients (p = 0.030). Multivariable analysis showed that VKA therapy (odds ratio [OR] 2.327), high-energy impact (OR 11.229), amnesia (OR 2.814), loss of consciousness (OR 5.286), Glasgow Coma Scale score < 15 (OR 4.719), and the presence of lesion above the clavicles (OR 2.742) were associated with significantly higher risk of global ICH. A nomogram was constructed to predict ICH using these six variables. Discrimination of the nomogram revealed good predictive abilities (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve: 0.817).

CONCLUSIONS

DOAC-treated patients seem to have lower risk of posttraumatic intracranial bleeding compared with VKA-treated patients.

Risk of Deterioration of Geriatric Traumatic Brain Injury in Patients Treated with Antithrombotic Drugs

OBJECTIVE

Developed countries have rapidly aging populations and the use of antithrombotic drugs is increasing. We investigated the effects of antithrombotic drugs and reversal of these drugs in patients with geriatric traumatic brain injury (TBI).

METHODS

Age, sex, mechanism of injury, Glasgow Coma Scale on admission, head computed tomography findings, antithrombotic therapy, acute exacerbation, and outcomes at discharge were examined in 711 patients with geriatric TBI, complicated with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage using data from the Japan Neurotrauma Data Bank Project 2015 (JNTDB P2015). These items were compared between patients who did and did not receive antithrombotic therapy. We also conducted a questionnaire survey of reversal of antithrombotic therapy at hospitals participating in the JNTDB P2015. Acute exacerbation was compared in hospitals that did and did not regularly use reversal of this therapy.

RESULTS

The major cause of injury was a fall. In head computed tomography, acute subdural hematoma was found in 65.7% of the subjects. Antithrombotic therapy was performed in 30.4% of subjects, and these subjects were significantly older than those who did not receive this therapy; many had a fall as the mechanism of injury, and the level of consciousness was significantly exacerbated with this therapy. In hospitals that performed regular reversal, late exacerbation of the level of consciousness was suppressed.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with geriatric TBI who are given antithrombotic drugs have a risk for late exacerbation, even if initially diagnosed with mild TBI. Therefore, there is a possibility that reversal of antithrombotic drugs is important to suppress the risk of deterioration of patients with TBI.

Utility of Repeat Head CT in Patients on Preinjury Antithrombotic Medications

Presently, there are no standardized guidelines regarding the necessity or timing of repeat head imaging in patients on antithrombotics (antiplatelet agents, warfarin, or novel oral anticoagulants) with suspected traumatic brain injury. This is a two-year single institutional retrospective analysis of patients with suspected traumatic brain injury on antithrombotic medications. Patients with a stable or negative repeat head CT were compared with patients who developed a new bleed or demonstrated progression of intracranial hemorrhage (ICH). Of 110 patients, 55 patients (50%) had a positive initial CT, two patients (1.8%) developed a new bleed after initially normal head CT, and 21 patients (19.1%) demonstrated worsening ICH. Patients with worsening or delayed ICH had a higher median Injury Severity Score (14 vs 5, P < 0.001), higher head/neck and face Abbreviated Injury Severity scores (both P < 0.05), and were more likely to be receiving combination therapy with warfarin and clopidogrel (4.3% vs 0%, P = 0.05). On multivariate analysis, lower face and head/neck Abbreviated Injury Severity scores were associated with a decreased risk for delayed or worsening hemorrhage (odds ratio = 0.21 and 0.46, respectively, P < 0.05). Repeat head CT in patients on a preinjury antithrombotic has a low yield. The use of combination therapy may result in an increased risk for delayed hemorrhage or hemorrhage progression.

Intracranial hemorrhage in anticoagulated patients with mild traumatic brain injury: significant differences between direct oral anticoagulants and vitamin K antagonists

Prognosis after mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) on oral anticoagulant therapy (OAT) is uncertain. We evaluated the rate of immediate and delayed traumatic intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) comparing vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) to direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) and the safety of a clinical management protocol. In this single-center prospective observational study, we enrolled 220 patients on OAT with MTBI. After a first negative CT scan, asymptomatic patients underwent a close neurological observation; if neurologically stable, they were discharged without a second CT scan and followed up for 1 month. Out of the 220 patients, 206 met the inclusion criteria. 23 of them (11.2%) had a positive first CT scan for ICH. Only 1 (0.5%, 95% CI 0.0-1.4%) died because of ICH; no one required neurosurgical intervention. The observed prevalence rate of immediate ICH resulted statistically higher in VKAs-treated patients compared to those treated with DOACs (15.7 vs. 4.7%, RR 3.34, 95% CI 1.18-9.46, P < 0.05). In the 1-month follow-up, 5 out of the 183 patients with a negative CT scan were lost. Out of the remaining 178 patients, only 3 showed a delayed ICH (1.7%, 95% CI 0.0-3.6%), 1 of them died (0.6%, 95% CI 0.5-1.7%) and the others did not require neurosurgical intervention. DOACs resulted safer than VKAs also in the setting of MTBI. In our observation, the rate of delayed hemorrhage was relatively low. Patients presenting with a negative first CT scan and without neurological deterioration could be safely discharged after a short period of in-ward observation with a low rate of complications and without a second CT scan.

Repeat Head CT? Not Necessary for Patients with a Negative Initial Head CT on Anticoagulation or Antiplatelet Therapy Suffering Low-Altitude Falls

Anticoagulation and antiplatelet (ACAP) medications are increasingly prescribed to patients at high risk for falls. Many trauma centers have developed protocols for obtaining repeat head CT (HCT) for patients with low-altitude falls on ACAP therapy. We assess the need for routine scheduled repeat HCT in this population. Prospective, observational analysis of all low-altitude fall (<6 feet) patients on ACAP therapy evaluated at a Level II trauma center. All low-altitude fall patients with visible or suspected head trauma received an initial HCT. Patients were admitted and repeat HCT was obtained 12 hours later or earlier if acute neurologic decline developed. Chisquared, Fischer exact, t, and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were used. Statistical significance was defined as P < 0.05. Total of 1501 patients enrolled suffering low-altitude falls with initial HCT. Among them 1379(91.2%) were negative and 122(8.1%) were initially positive for intracranial hemorrhage. Mean age was 79.9 ± 11.4 years, 61 per cent were female and 85 per cent had visible head trauma at presentation. One hundred ninety-nine were excluded secondary to not receiving repeat HCT. Of the 1180 patients with normal initial HCT who underwent repeat HCT, only 7 (0.51%) had delayed intracranial hemorrhage. None of these patients required surgery, major changes in medical management or suffered head trauma–related mortality; 69 per cent were taking aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, ASA), 19 per cent warfarin, 17 per cent clopidogrel, 6 per cent other anticoagulants, and 11 per cent were on combination therapy. Repeat HCT for patients on any ACAP therapy after low-altitude fall with a negative initial HCT is not necessary. Thorough neurologic examination and close monitoring is as effective as obtaining a repeat HCT.

Risk of Delayed Intracranial Hemorrhage in Anticoagulated Patients with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Delayed intracranial hemorrhage is a potential complication of head trauma in anticoagulated patients.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to use a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the risk of delayed intracranial hemorrhage 24 h after head trauma in patients who have a normal initial brain computed tomography (CT) scan but took vitamin K antagonist before injury.

METHODS

EMBASE, Medline, and Cochrane Library were searched using controlled vocabulary and keywords. Retrospective and prospective observational studies were included. Outcomes included positive CT scan 24 h post-trauma, need for surgical intervention, or death. Pooled risk was estimated with logit proportion in a random effect model with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Seven publications were identified encompassing 1,594 patients that were rescanned after a normal first head scan. For these patients, the pooled estimate of the incidence of intracranial hemorrhage on the second CT scan 24 h later was 0.60% (95% CI 0-1.2%) and the resulting risk of neurosurgical intervention or death was 0.13% (95% CI 0.02-0.45%).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study is the first published meta-analysis estimating the risk of delayed intracranial hemorrhage 24 h after head trauma in patients anticoagulated with vitamin K antagonist and normal initial CT scan. In most situations, a repeat CT scan in the emergency department 24 h later is not necessary if the first CT scan is normal. Special care may be required for patients with serious mechanism of injury, patients showing signs of neurologic deterioration, and patients presenting with excessive anticoagulation or receiving antiplatelet co-medication.

The risk of intra-cranial haemorrhage in those presenting late to the ED following a head injury: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Head injury represents an extremely common presentation to emergency departments (ED), but not all patients present immediately after injury. There is evidence that clinical deterioration following head injury will usually occur within 24 h. It is unclear whether this means that head injury patients that present in a delayed manner, especially after 24 h, have a lower prevalence of significant traumatic injuries including intra-cranial haemorrhages.

METHODS

A systematic review protocol was designed with the aim of systematically identifying and evaluating studies in delayed ED presentation head injury populations in order to establish whether the prevalence of significant intra-cranial injury was affected by delay in presentation. Two independent researchers assessed retrieved studies for inclusion against pre-determined inclusion criteria. Studies had to be conducted in ED head injury populations presenting in a delayed manner, and report a measure of prevalence of traumatic CT abnormality as an outcome.

RESULTS

Three studies were eligible for inclusion. They were all of poor methodological quality, and heterogeneity prevented meta-analysis. The reported prevalence of traumatic intra-cranial injury on CT was between 2.2 and 6.3%. This is generally lower than reported in the literature for non-delayed presentation head injury populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Available evidence suggests that head injury patients who present in a delayed fashion to the ED may have lower rates of intra-cranial injury compared to non-delayed head injury patients. However, the evidence is sparse and it is of too low quality to guide clinical practice. Further research is required to help the clinical risk assessment of this group.

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PROSPERO

CRD42015016135.

Mild traumatic brain injury presenting with delayed intracranial hemorrhage in warfarin therapy: a case report

Introduction

Current literature estimates the risk of delayed intracranial hemorrhage as between 0.6 and 6% after mild head injury for patients on warfarin. Due to resource allocation issues, the need to actually diagnose delayed intracranial haemorrhage has been questioned, especially if it does not require surgery. The purpose of our case report is to consider the functional implications during the six months following a mild traumatic brain injury complicated by delayed intracranial hemorrhage in a patient undergoing warfarin therapy. To the best of our knowledge, the rehabilitative and functional considerations of delayed intracranial haemorrhage in head injury have not been previously described in the literature.

Case presentation

A previously independent 74-year-old Lebanese man living in Australia sustained mild traumatic brain injury following an unwitnessed fall from the height of two meters while on warfarin therapy, with an international normalized ratio of 4.2. He was found to have amnesia of the event and extensive facial bruising. His Glasgow Coma Scale score was 14 to 15 throughout observation. Following a non-diagnostic initial computerised tomography scan, a repeat scan at 24 hours from the injury identified large intracerebral, subdural and subarachnoid hemorrhages. A detailed examination demonstrated visuospatial and cognitive impairments. He required inpatient rehabilitation for three weeks, and outpatient rehabilitation for two months. By six months, he had returned to his pre-injury level of functioning, but was unable to resume driving.

Conclusions

We describe rehabilitation outcomes of delayed intracranial haemorrhage and mild traumatic brain injury, with diminishing disability over six months. In our case report, the complication of the delayed intracranial haemorrhage resulted in significant activity limitations and participation restrictions, which affected the clinical management, including the need for multidisciplinary rehabilitation. The risk of delayed intracranial haemorrhage in mild head injury remains a significant problem requiring further research.