Enhanced fermentable sugar production from kitchen waste using various pretreatments

Potential and Restrictions of Food-Waste Valorization through Fermentation Processes

Food losses (FL) and waste (FW) occur throughout the food supply chain. These residues are disposed of on landfills producing environmental issues due to pollutants released into the air, water, and soil. Several research efforts have focused on upgrading FL and FW in a portfolio of added-value products and energy vectors. Among the most relevant research advances, biotechnological upgrading of these residues via fermentation has been demonstrated to be a potential valorization alternative. Despite the multiple investigations performed on the conversion of FL and FW, a lack of comprehensive and systematic literature reviews evaluating the potential of fermentative processes to upgrade different food residues has been identified. Therefore, this article reviews the use of FL and FW in fermentative processes considering the composition, operating conditions, platforms, fermentation product application, and restrictions. This review provides the framework of food residue fermentation based on reported applications, experimental, and theoretical data. Moreover, this review provides future research ideas based on the analyzed information. Thus, potential applications and restrictions of the FL and FW used for fermentative processes are highlighted. In the end, food residues fermentation must be considered a mandatory step toward waste minimization, a circular economy, and the development of more sustainable production and consumption patterns.

A critical review on pretreatment and detoxification techniques required for biofuel production from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste

The organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) is a widely-available promising feedstock for biofuel production. However, the presence of different inhibitors originating from fruit and food/beverage wastes as well as recalcitrant lignocellulosic fractions hampers its bioconversion. This necessitates a pretreatment to augment the biodigestibility and fermentability of OFMSW. Hence, this review aims to provide the in-vogue inhibitory compound removal and pretreatment techniques that have been employed for efficient OFMSW conversion into biofuels, i.e., hydrogen, biogas, ethanol, and butanol. The techniques are compared concerning their mode of action, chemical and energy consumption, inhibitor formation and removal, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability. This critique also reviews the existing knowledge gap and future perspectives for efficient OFMSW valorization. The insights provided pave the way toward developing energy-resilient cities while addressing environmental crises related to generating OFMSW.

Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Biomass Valorisation: A Strategic Drive for Sustainable Bioeconomy

In the late twentieth century, the only cost-effective opportunity for waste removal cost at least several thousand dollars, but nowadays, a lot of improvement has occurred. The biomass and waste generation problems attracted concerned authorities to identify and provide environmentally friendly sustainable solutions that possess environmental and economic benefits. The present study emphasises the valorisation of biomass and waste produced by domestic and industrial sectors. Therefore, substantial research is ongoing to replace the traditional treatment methods that potentially acquire less detrimental effects. Synthetic biology can be a unique platform that invites all the relevant characters for designing and assembling an efficient program that could be useful to handle the increasing threat for human beings. In the future, these engineered methods will not only revolutionise our lives but practically lead us to get cheaper biofuels, producing bioenergy, pharmaceutics, and various biochemicals. The bioaugmentation approach concomitant with microbial fuel cells (MFC) is an example that is used to produce electricity from municipal waste, which is directly associated with the loading of waste. Beyond the traditional opportunities, herein, we have spotlighted the new advances in pertinent technology closely related to production and reduction approaches. Various integrated modern techniques and aspects related to the industrial sector are also discussed with suitable examples, including green energy and other industrially relevant products. However, many problems persist in present-day technology that requires essential efforts to handle thoroughly because significant valorisation of biomass and waste involves integrated methods for timely detection, classification, and separation. We reviewed and proposed the anticipated dispensation methods to overcome the growing stream of biomass and waste at a distinct and organisational scale.

Oleaginous Yeasts as Cell Factories for the Sustainable Production of Microbial Lipids by the Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes

The agri-food industry annually produces huge amounts of crops residues and wastes, the suitable management of these products is important to increase the sustainability of agro-industrial production by optimizing the entire value chain. This is also in line with the driving principles of the circular economy, according to which residues can become feedstocks for novel processes. Oleaginous yeasts represent a versatile tool to produce biobased chemicals and intermediates. They are flexible microbial factories able to grow on different side-stream carbon sources such as those deriving from agri-food wastes, and this characteristic makes them excellent candidates for integrated biorefinery processes through the production of microbial lipids, known as single cell oils (SCOs), for different applications. This review aims to present an extensive overview of research progress on the production and use of oleaginous yeasts and present discussions on the current bottlenecks and perspectives of their exploitation in different sectors, such as foods, biofuels and fine chemicals.

Techno-Economic Evaluation of Food Waste Fermentation for Value-Added Products

Food waste (FW) is one of the most critical problems in the world. Most FW will be sent to landfills, generally accompanying some significant disadvantages to the surrounding environment. Fermentation is considered as another disposal method to deal with FW. In this study, using a techno-economic analysis (TEA) method, an evaluation of the economic impact of three different scenarios of FW fermentation is carried out. A SuperPro Designer V9.0 simulation was used to model a commercial scale processing plant for each scenario, namely, a FW fermentation process producing hydrolysis enzymes and featuring a 2-step distillation system, a FW fermentation process without enzymes, using a 2-step distillation system, and a FW fermentation process without enzymes, using a 1-step distillation system. Discounted cash flow analysis is used to estimate the minimum ethanol selling price (MESP), where the lowest MESP result of $2.41/gal ($0.64/L) of ethanol is found for the second aforementioned scenario, showing that, even without enzymes in FW fermentation, the product cost can be competitive when compared to the other scenarios considered in this study. This project thus reflects a significant positive economic impact while minimizing the environmental footprint of a commercial production facility.

Defatted algal biomass as feedstock for short chain carboxylic acids and biohydrogen production in the biorefinery format

The objective of the study was to evaluate the potential application of defatted algal biomass (DAB) residue as a resource for biobased product synthesis in the biorefinery framework. Acid-catalyzed pretreatment of DAB residue resulted in higher reducing sugars (RS) solubilization (0.26 g RS/g DAB) than corresponding base method (0.19 g RS/g DAB). Subsequently, resulting RS were acidogenically fermented for the production of Bio-H₂ and short chain carboxylic acids (SCA)/volatile fatty acids (VFA) at varying redox conditions (pH: 6, 7 and 10). Biosystem with pH-6 resulted in higher SCA (0.54 g SCA/g RS) and Bio-H₂ production (0.83  l) followed by pH-10 (0.43 g SCA/g RS, 0.71  l) and pH-7 (0.27 g SCA/g RS, 0.48  l). Higher SCA production in pH-6 system resulted in maximum acidification (23%). Algal biomass majorly derived from CO₂ and its residues after lipids extraction accounted as major feedstock for acidogenic product synthesis. Evaluation of these studies using DAB residues offers sustainability to algal refineries on its entirety use.

Concise review on ethanol production from food waste: development and sustainability

The development of sustainable bioethanol fuel production from food waste has increasingly become an attractive topic. Food waste is recognized as the most available and costless feedstock. Therefore, ethanol production has been adopted as cost-efficient and an ecological way for FW disposal. This paper reviewed the microorganisms utilized for ethanol fermentation, the effect of enzymatic hydrolysis on ethanol concentration, optimization of accurate process parameters, and recycling of huge volumes of stillage for ethanol production towards reducing any incurred environmental burdens and minimizing the cost. The statistical tools which may enhance the process efficiency had been presented. Also, the perspective and the future development were introduced. All these aimed to fully utilize the food waste and also reduce the cost for side-product in this process; proper operation conditions and the control methods for stillage recycling were considered as the methods to improve ethanol fermentation from food waste.

Dilute sulfuric acid fractionation of Korean food waste for ethanol and lactic acid production by yeast

Fermentation of food waste biomass can be used to produce biochemicals such as lactic acid and ethanol in a cost-effective manner. Korean food waste (KFW) dewatered by a screw press contains 23.1% glucan on a dry basis and is a potential raw material for the production of ethanol and lactic acid through fermentation. This study was conducted to optimize the dilute acid fractionation conditions for KFW fermentation with respect to the H₂SO₄ concentration (0-0.8% w/v), temperature (130-190 °C), and residence time (1-128 min) using response surface methodology. Dilute sulfuric acid fractionation was carried out using a 30-mL stainless steel reactor under conditions, and then the dilute acid fractionation was scaled-up in 1-L and 7-L stainless steel reactors under the optimal conditions. The hydrolysate was concentrated, liquid-liquid extracted and neutralized for lactic acid and ethanol production. The highest concentration of glucose obtained from the KFW was 26.4 g/L using fractionation with 0.37% w/v H₂SO₄ at 156 °C for 123.6 min. Using recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a codon-optimized lactate dehydrogenase, the yield of lactic acid and ethanol was 77% of the theoretical yield for 17.4 g/L of fermentable sugar at pH 5.5. Additionally, the yield of ethanol produced by Issatchenkia orientalis was 89% of the theoretical yield for 25 g/L of fermentable sugar at pH 3.

Food waste biorefinery: Sustainable strategy for circular bioeconomy

Enormous quantity of food waste (FW) is becoming a global concern. To address this persistent problem, sustainable interventions with green technologies are essential. FW can be used as potential feedstock in biological processes for the generation of various biobased products along with its remediation. Enabling bioprocesses like acidogenesis, fermentation, methanogenesis, solventogenesis, photosynthesis, oleaginous process, bio-electrogenesis, etc., that yields various products like biofuels, platform chemicals, bioelectricity, biomaterial, biofertilizers, animal feed, etc can be utilized for FW valorisation. Integrating these bioprocesses further enhances the process efficiency and resource recovery sustainably. Adapting biorefinery strategy with integrated approach can lead to the development of circular bioeconomy. The present review highlights the various enabling bioprocesses that can be employed for the generation of energy and various commodity chemicals in an integrated approach addressing sustainability. The waste biorefinery approach for FW needs optimization of the cascade of the individual bioprocesses for the transformation of linear economy to circular bioeconomy.

Over production of fermentable sugar for bioethanol production from carbohydrate-rich Malaysian food waste via sequential acid-enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment

In Malaysia, the amount of food waste produced is estimated at approximately 70% of total municipal solid waste generated and characterised by high amount of carbohydrate polymers such as starch, cellulose, and sugars. Considering the beneficial organic fraction contained, its utilization as an alternative substrate specifically for bioethanol production has receiving more attention. However, the sustainable production of bioethanol from food waste is linked to the efficient pretreatment needed for higher production of fermentable sugar prior to fermentation. In this work, a modified sequential acid-enzymatic hydrolysis process has been developed to produce high concentration of fermentable sugars; glucose, sucrose, fructose and maltose. The process started with hydrothermal and dilute acid pretreatment by hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) which aim to degrade larger molecules of polysaccharide before accessible for further steps of enzymatic hydrolysis by glucoamylase. A kinetic model is proposed to perform an optimal hydrolysis for obtaining high fermentable sugars. The results suggested that a significant increase in fermentable sugar production (2.04-folds) with conversion efficiency of 86.8% was observed via sequential acid-enzymatic pretreatment as compared to dilute acid pretreatment (∼42.4% conversion efficiency). The bioethanol production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae utilizing fermentable sugar obtained shows ethanol yield of 0.42g/g with conversion efficiency of 85.38% based on the theoretical yield was achieved. The finding indicates that food waste can be considered as a promising substrate for bioethanol production.

Bioconversion of Welan Gum from Kitchen Waste by a Two-Step Enzymatic Hydrolysis Pretreatment

Kitchen waste (KW) is a worldwide issue, which can lead to environment pollution. Nevertheless, it is also a low-cost and sustainable resource for bio-production. Meanwhile, welan gum (WG) is one kind of the most important exopolysaccharide but with high material cost. The aim of this study was to adopt two-step enzymatic hydrolysis to improve the release and recovery of both sugar and protein in KW for subsequent WG production. As the results, the recovery rates of sugar and protein reached 81.07 and 77.38%, which were both satisfactory. After the conditions optimized in flasks, the welan fermentation was conducted in a 5-L fermentor, and the WG yield, utilization rates of reducing sugar and KDN, respectively, reached 5.57 g L^-1, 94.25% and 61.96%. Moreover, the kinetic analyses demonstrated that the WG fermentation in KWH was a partly growth-associated process. The KW was successfully treated by fermentation for the bioconversion to WG.

Effect of pretreatment on the enzymatic hydrolysis of kitchen waste for xanthan production

The study was carried out to gain insight into the effect of pretreatment on enzymatic hydrolysis of kitchen waste (KW) for xanthan fermentation. Herein, various pretreatments were applied and it was found that chemical pretreatment had positive effect on the following enzymatic or overall hydrolysis process. The highest reducing sugar concentration was obtained as 51.87g/L from 2% HCl (90°C) pretreated sample, while the Kjeldahl nitrogen (KDN) concentration was 7.79g/L. Kinetic study showed that first order kinetic model was suitable to describe the enzymatic hydrolysis process. The obtained kitchen waste hydrolysate (KWH) was successfully applied for xanthan fermentation. Xanthan concentration reached 4.09-6.46g/L when KWH with 2% HCl (90°C) pretreatment was applied as medium. In comparison, a xanthan concentration of 3.25-5.57g/L was obtained from KWH without pretreatment. Therefore, pretreatment of KW using diluted acid is favorable for the overall hydrolysis process and effective for xanthan fermentation.