Sustainable harvest, people and pandas: Assessing a decade of managed wild harvest and trade in Schisandra sphenanthera

Tissue-specific transcriptome and metabolome analyses reveal candidate genes for lignan biosynthesis in the medicinal plant Schisandra sphenanthera

Schisandra sphenanthera is an extremely important medicinal plant, and its main medicinal component is bioactive lignans. The S. sphenanthera fruit is preferred by the majority of consumers, and the root, stem, and leaf are not fully used. To better understand the lignan metabolic pathway, transcriptome and metabolome analyses were performed on the four major tissues of S. sphenanthera. A total of 167,972,229 transcripts and 91,215,760 unigenes with an average length of 752 bp were identified. Tissue-specific gene analysis revealed that the root had the highest abundance of unique unigenes (9703), and the leaves had the lowest (189). Transcription factor analysis showed that MYB-, bHLH- and ERF-transcription factors, which played important roles in the regulation of secondary metabolism, showed rich expression patterns and may be involved in the regulation of processes involved in lignan metabolism. In different tissues, lignans were preferentially enriched in fruit and roots by gene expression profiles related to lignan metabolism and relative lignan compound content. Furthermore, schisandrin B is an important compound in S. sphenanthera. According to weighted gene co-expression network analysis, PAL1, C4H-2, CAD1, CYB8, OMT27, OMT57, MYB18, bHLH3, and bHLH5 can be related to the accumulation of lignans in S. sphenanthera fruit, CCR5, SDH4, CYP8, CYP20, and ERF7 can be related to the accumulation of lignans in S. sphenanthera roots. In this study, transcriptome sequencing and targeted metabolic analysis of lignans will lay a foundation for the further study of their biosynthetic genes.

A comprehensive review of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. and Schisandra sphenanthera Rehd. et Wils

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Schisandra chinensis (called bei-wuweizi in Chinese, S. chinensis) and Schisandra sphenanthera (called nan-wuweizi in Chinese, S. sphenanthera) are two highly similar plants in the Magnoliaceae family. Their dried ripe fruits are commonly used as traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of coughs, palpitation, spermatorrhea, and insomnia. They also are traditionally used as tonics in Russia, Japan, and Korea.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera are similar in appearance, traditional applications, ingredient compositions, and therapeutic effects. This review, therefore, aims to provide a systematic insight into the botanical background, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, quality control, and toxicology of S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera, and to explore and present the similarities and differences between S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature search regarding S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera was collected by using electronic databases including PubMed, SciFinder, Science Direct, Web of Science, CNKI, and the online ethnobotanical database.

RESULTS

In the 2020 Edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP), there were 100 prescriptions containing S. chinensis, while only 11 contained S. sphenanthera. Totally, 306 and 238 compounds have been isolated and identified from S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera, respectively. Among these compounds, lignans, triterpenoids, essential oils, phenolic acid, flavonoids, phytosterols are the major composition. Through investigation of pharmacological activities, S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera have similar therapeutic effects including hepatoprotection, neuroprotection, cardioprotection, anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and hypoglycemic effect. Besides, S. chinensis turns out to have more effects including reproductive regulation and immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antitussive and antiasthmatic, anti-fatigue, antiarthritic, and bone remodeling effects. Both S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera have inhibitory effects on CYP3A and P-gp, which can mediate metabolism or efflux of substrates, and therefore interact with many drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera have great similarities. Dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans are regarded to contribute to most of the bioactivities. Schisandrin A-C, schisandrol A-B, and schisantherin A, existing in both S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera but differing in the amount, are the main active components, which may contribute to the similarities and differences. Study corresponding to the traditional use is needed to reveal the deep connotation of the use of S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera as traditional Chinese medicine. In addition, a joint study of S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera can better show the difference between them, which can provide a reference for clinical application. It is worth mentioning that the inhibition of S. chinensis and S. sphenanthera on CYP3A and P-gp may lead to undesirable drug-drug interactions.

There "ain't no mountain high enough"?: The drivers, diversity and sustainability of China's Rhodiola trade

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Across Asia, Rhodiola species have been used in Bhutanese, Mongolian, Nepalese, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek traditional medical systems. China is globally significant in terms of Rhodiola species diversity, with over 60% (55 species) of the world's 90 Rhodiola species, including 16 species found nowhere else in the world. Since the late 1980's there has been a shift from relatively low demand for infusions using chopped dried Rhodiola roots, to high 21st century demand for a wide variety of processed products. China's trade in Rhodiola products is now very diverse, with use in cosmetics and foods in addition to herbal products. Rhodiola crenulata (Hook.f. & Thomson) H.Ohba is the most widely traded species in China. In addition to R. crenulata and Rhodiola rosea L., 19 Rhodiola other species are used.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

These were to: (i) better understand why adulteration occurs in Rhodiola products; (ii) become more aware of what drives the growing market demand for Rhodiola products in China; (iii) find out whether increased demand is reflected in wholesale prices for Rhodiola raw materials traditional medicine markets; (iv) to examine Rhodiola supply chains and (v) given that wild populations are the primary supply source, to review the implications of growing demand for conservation and sustainable use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, we assessed growth in the diversity of Rhodiola products using three approaches: (i) by assessing patent applications for Rhodiola products in China (1990-2019); (ii) in 2018, through on-line searches of CFDA (China Food and Drug Administration) records for medicines and dietary supplements that had Rhodiola as an ingredient and (iii) by visiting retail stores in 2018 and 2019 to assess the diversity of commercial Rhodiola based products in trade. Secondly, we visited traditional medicine markets in Yunnan, Sichuan, and Qinghai provinces to investigate the trade in Rhodiola (folk taxonomy, trade names, prices, source areas, levels of processing and grading). Thirdly, we analysed the wholesale price data for Rhodiola raw materials in trade over a 16-year period (2002-2018). Fourthly, as most products come from wild collected Rhodiola species, we documented the extent of Rhodiola cultivation in China.

RESULTS

International exports of Rhodiola products from China, particularly extracts, is a major driver of commercial trade. One proxy indicator of Rhodiola product diversification in China has been the rapid rise in patent applications from single applications in 1990 and 1991, to a peak of 1017 patent applications in 2015. Wholesale price data from 2002 to 2018 shows a steady increase in wholesale prices. As the growing market for Rhodiola products in China is currently supplied entirely from wild collection, there are justifiable concerns about sustainability. Commercial cultivation needs to expand to meet future demand.

CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to Europe and North America, where R. rosea is the focal species in commerce, the trade in Rhodiola products in China is much more diverse. In the face of growing demand, both effective conservation of wild populations and cultivation are needed.

Asian Medicinal Plants’ Production and Utilization Potentials: A Review

Medicinal plants research in Asia continues to receive significant national and international attention, particularly concerning its multiple roles in poverty alleviation and health care support. However, scientific information on the institutional arrangements, the potentials of different medicinal plants production systems, and the utilization methods, remain highly fragmented. This incomprehensive information base shades the development of a comprehensive research agenda to improve the current body of knowledge, at least in the context of Asia. To address this impasse and propose future research perspectives, we systematically reviewed 247 journal articles, 15 institutional reports, and 28 book chapters. From the reviews, five key lessons are drawn: (i) Asian medicinal plant production systems demonstrate some dynamics, characterized by a gradual but continuous shift from wild gathering to cultivation, (ii) sub-regional variations exist with regards to the appreciation of medicinal plants potentials for traditional healing, modern healthcare and livelihoods support, (iii) knowledge on the effect of multi-scale institutional arrangements (formal and informal) on medicinal plant management practices is fragmented, (iv) very few studies dwell on the challenges of medicinal plants commercialization, particularly with regards to the role of middlemen, boom–bust cycle, raw material readiness, and product quality, and (v) law enforcement, benefit and knowledge sharing, and research and development should be prioritized to serve the interest of medicinal plants production actors. To further extend the body of knowledge on medicinal plants in Asia, we advance the need for empirical investigations on the performance of medicinal plants production systems and their contribution to livelihoods in diverse institutional contexts.

Linking resource supplies and price drivers: Lessons from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) price volatility and change, 2002-2017

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Worldwide, one of the drivers of substitution and adulteration is the cost of the natural resources (plants, animals, fungi) that are ingredients of traditional medicines. Relatively few studies have been done that link prices of traditional medicine ingredients to what drives changes in price, yet this is an important topic. Theoretically, prices have been widely considered as an economic indicator of resource scarcity. Rare, slow growing medicinal plants sell for high prices and common, less popular species for low prices. Price levels also influence the viability of farming vs. wild harvest (and incentives to overharvest high value species when tenure is weak). Prices can also influence the harvesting or buying behaviour of harvesters, traders or manufacturers. When prices are high, then there is a greater incentive to use cheaper substitute species or adulterants. As previous studies on herbal medicine ingredients have shown, adulteration applies in a wide variety of cases, including to some Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) species.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of which factors influenced changes in the market prices of document prices for four popular, but very different traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) species (2002 - 2017).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fluctuations in market prices were followed over a 15-year period (2002-2017) for four very different TCM ingredients: two plant species (one wild harvested for fruits (Schisandra sphenanthera Rehder & E.H. Wilson) the other in a transition from wild harvest to cultivation (Paris polyphylla Smith), an animal species (the Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko L.)) and the entomophagous "caterpillar fungus" (Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk). G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora).

RESULTS

High prices of medicinal plants are widely considered to reflect resource scarcity. Real-time market prices for three of the four very different TCM species we studied all showed major price fluctuations. The exception was P. polyphylla, whose wild populations are widely known to be increasingly scarce, where there was a steady increase in price, with few fluctuations in the upward price trend. The three other species showed significant price fluctuations. These were driven by multiple factors. Ecological and biogeographic factors that influence abundance or scarcity of supply certainly played a role. But other factors were also influential. These included both national and global economic factors (the influence of the Global Financial Crisis (GFC)), national policy changes that in turn influenced businessmen giving expensive gifts (that included O. sinensis)), climate change (influencing fruiting success of S. sphenanthera), price speculation by traders and lack of information (e.g: reduction in G. gecko prices due to traders incorrectly believing that domestication would increase supplies).

CONCLUSIONS

Price fluctuations in the four TCM species we examined are influenced by many factors and not just resource scarcity. And the situation is more complex than the trajectory based on Homma's (1992) model, where he predicted that higher prices would result in a shift to cultivation, thus replacing wild harvest. In case of both O. sinensis and P. polyphylla, Homma (1992, 1996) was right in terms of scarcity and high prices stimulating a major investment in cultivation (P. polyphylla) and artificial production (O. sinensis). But in both cases, intensive production through cultivation or artificial propagation do not yet occur on a large enough scale to reduce harvest of wild stocks. Substitution and adulteration occur with all four species. Improving information to medicinal plant traders on the supply status of TCM stocks, whether from wild harvest or from cultivation could benefit product quality, cultivation initiatives and conservation efforts.

Introduction to the special issue: Saving plants, saving lives: Trade, sustainable harvest and conservation of traditional medicinals in Asia

This "geographic and thematic" issue of the Journal of Ethnopharmacology focuses on the traditional medicines in trade in Asia on the 30th anniversary of the 1988 Chiang-Mai Declaration, an output of an historic meeting organized by WHO, IUCN and WWF. The emphasis on the Asian countries that represent the highest volume and value of medicinal plants trade in the world is deliberate. Not only because of the scale and speed of changes in traditional medicines trade in Asia, but also to highlight the conservation and sustainable use issues being faced today. In 1988, few studies had been done on the informal sector trade or on medicinal plant value-chains and even fewer studies on cross-border trade in medicinal plants or fungi. At that time, e-commerce in Traditional and Complementary Medicine (T&CM), so common today, did not even exist. And no comparitive, repeat studies of traditional medicines markets had been done at all. Thirty years later, this special issue illustrates how the traditional medicines trade has grown and changed. Links between medicinal plant conservation, scarcity and price on one hand and quality, safety and adulteration on the other are better understood. E-commerce in T&CM has grown exponentially, due to 51% of the world's population having internet access by 2017. Yet despite global policy goals for conservation and sustainable use, the challenges facing medicinal plants conservation are greater than ever before. Consequently, the need for co-operation between the health-care and conservation sectors recognised in 1988 is even greater today. And this is recognised in WHO's 2014-2023 strategy for traditional medicines, which identifies the need to raise awareness about issues of biodiversity and conservation as an important strategic action (WHO, 2013). This Special Issue is a small contribution towards that goal.