Antimalarial herbal remedies of Bukavu and Uvira areas in DR Congo: An ethnobotanical survey

Ethnobotanical survey and antimycobacterial activities of plants used against tuberculosis in Lubumbashi, DR Congo

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis is still a serious threat to public health in Africa and especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which is one of the eight countries with approximately two-thirds of the global cases of tuberculosis. Given the difficulties in accessing health care services and antitubercular treatments, indigenous population also uses plant-based traditional medicine. This study aimed to identify plants with antituberculosis potential in traditional Katangese medicine.

METHODS

Interviews were conducted on traditional healers using snowball sampling method. Ethnobotanical data were assessed by determination of the informant consensus factor and the relative frequency of citation. Guided field walks allowed to collect plants. Methanolic extracts were tested on Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium bovis BCG using microdilution, diffusion and agar proportion methods. The cytotoxicity of the best extracts was evaluated by cell viability assay on the human cervical squamous carcinoma SiHa cell line. The 50% inhibitory concentration and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) were used to determine the selectivity index.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight plant species from 23 families were identified, most of which were from Fabaceae (16%). Eleven out of 17 plant extracts inhibited the growth of M. smegmatis at MIC ranging from 13 to 250 μg/mL. The methanolic extracts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Parinari curatellifolia showed MIC99 of 62.5 and 62.5-125 μg/mL, respectively, on M. bovis BCG and showed IC50 values of 28 and 20 μg/mL, respectively suggesting a low selectivity index. This study was the first to investigate the antimycobacterial activity of Terminalia mollis, Phyllanthus muellerianus, Ochna afzelii, and Rothmannia engleriana.

CONCLUSIONS

The demonstration of antimycobacterial activity in the plants used in Lubumbashi against tuberculosis opens opportunities for more in-depth research into their chemical composition and toxicity, ultimately aiming to enhance their safety for treatment of tuberculosis.

Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, and Biological Activity of Extracts and Non-Volatile Compounds from Lantana camara L. and Semisynthetic Derivatives-An Updated Review

Lantana camara L., commonly known as pigeon berry, is a herbaceous plant of growing scientific interest due to the high medicinal value. In fact, despite being categorized as an invasive species, it has been used for a long time to treat different diseases thanks to the many biological activities. Triterpenes, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, and iridoid glycosides are the bioactive compounds naturally occurring in L. camara that have demonstrated anticancer, antifilarial, nematocidal, antibacterial, insecticidal, antileishmanial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. The aim of this review is to update the information concerning the chemistry and biological activity of L. camara extracts and their constituents, including semisynthetic derivatives, revising the literature until June 2024. We believe that the data reported in this review clearly demonstrate the importance of the plant as a promising source of medicines and will therefore stimulate further investigations.

Unleashing the power of golden berry leaves to counteract cyclophosphamide's toll with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neurotransmitter boosting effects

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Golden berries (Physalis peruviana) are esteemed for their healing properties and widespread use in traditional medicine, particularly for their neuroprotective benefits.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work aims to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of golden berry total leaf extract cultivated in Egypt (TLE) against cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced neurotoxicity and to identify the chemical composition of different organs of P. peruviana from both Egypt and USA.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Metabolite profiling of TLE was conducted using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS). In the animal model experiment, CP (100 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered once weekly for four weeks to induce neurocognitive dysfunction. Concurrently, TLE (500 mg/kg, orally) was administered twice weekly throughout the four weeks to evaluate its effectiveness in alleviating CP-induced neuronal deficits. Behavioral assessments, Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests, were conducted, followed by, histological evaluations of brain tissue samples. Additionally, biochemical analyses were performed on hippocampal tissue samples, examining the following markers, acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE), malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT) activity, nuclear factor kappa B (p-NF-κB p65) (Ser536), Interleukin 1β (IL-1β), Interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), and Bax (Bcl-2-associated X) levels.

RESULTS

TLE significantly preserved hippocampal neurons and improved cognitive performance in behavioral tests. TLE achieved these beneficial effects by suppressing AChE activity, diminishing the oxidative stress and restoring redox balance via inhibiting p-NFκB/IL-1β,/TNFα/IL-6 cascades. Leaf extract revealed the highest total phenolic content (TPC) (2.7 ± 6.41 mg GAE/g extract) and total flavonoid content (TFC) (0.37 ± 1.19 mg QE/g) and the strongest antioxidant effects in Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays with IC50 values of 21.13 ± 1.48 and 18.19 ± 1.29 μg/mL, respectively. UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis resulted in the tentative identification of 20 metabolites including phenolic acids, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acid amides, and alkyl resorcinols.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings verify for the first time the neuroprotective potential of golden berry leaf, currently discarded as agricultural waste, and highlight its multifaceted mechanism of neuroprotection in CP-induced neurotoxicity, suggesting its suitability as a promising therapeutic agent for neurotoxicity management.

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin and Clemants: bridging traditional knowledge, photochemistry, preclinical investigations, and toxicological validation for health benefits

Dysphania ambrosioides L. (Chenopodiaceae) is a Moroccan medicinal plant known locally as "M'Khinza." It is widely used in traditional medicine to treat numerous ailments, such as diabetes, digestive disorders, fever, fertility problems, immune disorders, hypertension, bronchitis, respiratory conditions, pharyngitis, cough, and flu. As part of this review, comprehensive preclinical investigations, including in vitro, in vivo, and in silico studies, were conducted to better understand the mechanisms of action of D. ambrosioides. Additionally, the phytochemical profile of the plant was examined, highlighting the presence of certain bioactive secondary metabolites. The information was gathered from electronic data sources such as Web of Science, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Springer Link, and Google Scholars. Numerous studies have mentioned the pharmacological properties of D. ambrosioides, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic, antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal activities. Furthermore, research has also suggested its potential as an anticancer, antidiabetic, and vasorelaxant agent. Phytochemical characterization of D. ambrosioides has revealed the presence of over 96 major bioactive compounds, including terpenoids, polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, and fatty acids. As for the toxicity of this plant, it is dose-dependent. Furthermore, more in-depth pharmacological studies are needed to establish the mechanisms of action of this plant more accurately before considering clinical trials. In conclusion, this review highlights the traditional use of D. ambrosioides in Moroccan medicine and emphasizes its potential pharmacological properties. However, to fully harness its therapeutic potential, further research, both in terms of chemistry and pharmacology, is necessary. These future studies could help identify new active compounds and provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of action of this plant, thus opening new prospects for its pharmaceutical application.

Evaluating phytochemical constituents and in-vitro antiplasmodial and antioxidant activities of Fadogiella stigmatoloba, Hygrophylla auriculata, Hylodesmum repandum, and Porphyrostemma chevalieri extracts

Introduction

Fadogiella stigmatoloba, Hygrophylla auriculata, Hylodesmum repandum and Porphyrostemma chevalieri are used against malaria in traditional medicine in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). To evaluate their potential in the treatment of this disease, the in vitro antiplasmodial property of these four plants was evaluated. All experiments were conducted on methanolic extracts performed on selected organ parts of these plants.

Methods

The methanolic extracts, obtained by maceration, were firstly screened in vitro against the chloroquine sensitive (3D7) and resistant (W2) Plasmodium falciparum strains by the measurement of lactate dehydrogenase activity, and on human keratinocytes (HaCat) cells by the MTT assay to determine their selectivity indices (SI). Secondly, the antioxidant activity of the same extracts was evaluated using DPPH and FRAP assays. Finally, the presence of specific phytochemical constituents was evaluated using standard methods and tentatively identified by GC-MS.

Results

An optimum antiplasmodial activity (IC50 = 3.4 ± 0.7 μg/mL, for 3D7, SI = 58.2; IC50 = 7 ± 1.0 μg/mL, for W2, SI = 28.3) was obtained with the leave extract of P. chevalieri. The leaves (for F. stigmatoloba and H. repandum), and the aerial part (for H. repandum) extracts showed promising and moderate antiplasmodial activities against respectively the 3D7 strain (IC50: <15 μg/mL), and W2 strain (IC50:15-50 μg/mL). All extracts presented a weak cytotoxic effect (IC50: >100 μg/mL) on HaCat cells. For the antioxidant test, the most interesting activity was obtained with the leaf extract of P. chevalieri. The GC-MS analysis of these four plants species extracts revealed the presence of various compounds, such as Ethyl 2-nonenoate, 2-(2-Hydroxy-2-phenylethyl)-3,5,6-trimethyl pyrazine, Palmitic Acid, Ethyl palmitate, Ethyl linolenate, and N-Acetyltyramine.

Conclusion

Based on the obtained results, P. chevalieri could be selected for further investigations or ⁄and for the management of malaria after standardization.

Antidiarrheal coumarins from Psydrax schimperianus (A. Rich.) Bridson roots

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Psydrax schimperianus (A. Rich.) Bridson. roots are used for the treatment of diarrhea in West Arsi zone, Ethiopia.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the in vivo antidiarrheal activity of crude extract and coumarins isolated from the roots of Psydrax schimperianus to provide a pharmacological basis for its traditional use as an antidiarrheal agent in Ethiopia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The crude root extract of P. schimperianus was tested for in vivo antidiarrheal efficacy in mice utilizing castor oil-induced diarrhea, gastrointestinal transit time, and enteropooling models at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg. Phytochemical investigation of the crude root extract led to the isolation of two coumarins, isoscopoletin, and scoparone. Isoscopoletin and scoparone were evaluated for antidiarrheal activity against castor oil-induced diarrhea model at 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg doses.

RESULTS

The crude root extract of P. schimperianus, at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, inhibited defecation by 37.5%, 46.2%, and 61.2%, respectively. At a dose of 20 mg/kg, scoparone and isoscopoletin reduced defecation by 61.2% and 66.6%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The study warrants continued investigation of isoscopoletin and scoparone towards development as a novel treatment for diarrheal diseases.

Plants as Sources of Natural and Recombinant Antimalaria Agents

Malaria is one of the severe infectious diseases that has victimized about half a civilization billion people each year worldwide. The application of long-lasting insecticides is the main strategy to control malaria; however, a surge in antimalarial drug development is also taking a leading role to break off the infections. Although, recurring drug resistance can compromise the efficiency of both conventional and novel antimalarial medicines. The eradication of malaria is significantly contingent on discovering novel potent agents that are low cost and easy to administer. In this context, plant metabolites inhibit malaria infection progression and might potentially be utilized as an alternative treatment for malaria, such as artemisinin. Advances in genetic engineering technology, especially the advent of molecular farming, have made plants more versatile in producing protein drugs (PDs) to treat infectious diseases, including malaria. These recent developments in genetic modifications have enabled the production of native pharmaceutically active compounds and the accumulation of diverse heterologous proteins such as human antibodies, booster vaccines, and many PDs to treat infectious diseases and genetic disorders. This review will discuss the pivotal role of a plant-based production system that expresses natural antimalarial agents or host protein drugs to cure malaria infections. The potential of these natural and induced compounds will support modern healthcare systems in treating malaria infections, especially in developing countries to mitigate human fatalities.

Perceptions and use of traditional African medicine in Lubumbashi, Haut-Katanga province (DR Congo): A cross-sectional study

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the desire of the Ministry of Health to integrate Traditional African Medicine into the Official Health System remains limited by the lack of reliable data on several aspects of this medicine. This study aims to determine the perceptions of the Lubumbashi population towards Traditional African Medicine and the contexts of recourse to these therapeutic modalities. We conducted semi-structured interviews of population samples in each of the 7 Lubumbashi municipalities, which were semi-randomly selected in proportions to each population size, from January to June 2017 and from February to July 2018. A total of 4278 people (average age, 32.1 ± 10.4 years; 36.5% of women) have been surveyed. Among them, 75.8% define "Traditional African Medicine" as "herbal-based treatments"; 79.4% have resorted to traditional medicine, for several pathologies and social problems. This medicine was preferred for efficiency, speed of healing and low cost, as well as the presence of the diseases against which it would be the only one used. Most, (52.1%) have started with Conventional Medicine, then resorted to Traditional African Medicine, 34.7% started directly with Traditional African Medicine, while 13.2% combined these two medicines. From those who have resorted to Traditional African Medicine (n = 3396), 55% declare no concern towards traditional medicine, while 42.5% fear looseness, overdose, intoxication, and lack of hygiene; from those who have not resorted to Traditional African Medicine (n = 882), 78% are fearful of fear looseness, witchcraft, and fetishism. Traditional African Medicine remains an important health care resource for the Lubumbashi people. It is essential that decision-makers consider the importance of this health sector for the population, but also the reported fears and hindrances, and work towards the regulation, sanitization, and control of this medicine to ensure its safe use.

Clinical malaria incidence and health seeking pattern in geographically heterogeneous landscape of western Kenya

Background

Malaria remains a public health problem in Kenya despite sustained interventions deployed by the government. One of the major impediments to effective malaria control is a lack of accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. This study was conducted to assess clinical malaria incidence and treatment seeking profiles of febrile cases in western Kenya.

Methods

Active case detection of malaria was carried out in three eco-epidemiologically distinct zones topologically characterized as lakeshore, hillside, and highland plateau in Kisumu County, western Kenya, from March 2020 to March 2021. Community Health Volunteers (CHVs) conducted biweekly visits to residents in their households to interview and examine for febrile illness. A febrile case was defined as an individual having fever (axillary temperature ≥ 37.5 °C) during examination or complaints of fever and other nonspecific malaria related symptoms 1–2 days before examination. Prior to the biweekly malaria testing by the CHVs, the participants' treatment seeking methods were based on their behaviors in response to febrile illness. In suspected malaria cases, finger-prick blood samples were taken and tested for malaria parasites with ultra-sensitive Alere^® malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) and subjected to real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for quality control examination.

Results

Of the total 5838 residents interviewed, 2205 residents had high temperature or reported febrile illness in the previous two days before the visit. Clinical malaria incidence (cases/1000people/month) was highest in the lakeshore zone (24.3), followed by the hillside (18.7) and the highland plateau zone (10.3). Clinical malaria incidence showed significant difference across gender (χ² = 7.57; df = 2, p = 0.0227) and age group (χ² = 58.34; df = 4, p < 0.0001). Treatment seeking patterns of malaria febrile cases showed significant difference with doing nothing (48.7%) and purchasing antimalarials from drug shops (38.1%) being the most common health-seeking pattern among the 2205 febrile residents (χ² = 21.875; df = 4, p < 0.0001). Caregivers of 802 school-aged children aged 5–14 years with fever primarily sought treatment from drug shops (28.9%) and public hospitals (14.0%), with significant lower proportions of children receiving treatment from traditional medication (2.9%) and private hospital (4.4%) (p < 0.0001). There was no significant difference in care givers' treatment seeking patterns for feverish children under the age of five (p = 0.086). Residents with clinical malaria cases in the lakeshore and hillside zones sought treatment primarily from public hospitals (61.9%, 60/97) traditional medication (51.1%, 23/45) respectively (p < 0.0001). However, there was no significant difference in the treatment seeking patterns of highland plateau residents with clinical malaria (p = 0.431).The main factors associated with the decision to seek treatment were the travel distance to the health facility, the severity of the disease, confidence in the treatment, and affordability.

Conclusion

Clinical malaria incidence remains highest in the Lakeshore (24.3cases/1000 people/month) despite high LLINs coverage (90%). The travel distance to the health facility, severity of disease and affordability were mainly associated with 80% of residents either self-medicating or doing nothing to alleviate their illness. The findings of this study suggest that the Ministry of Health should strengthen community case management of malaria by providing supportive supervision of community health volunteers to advocate for community awareness, early diagnosis, and treatment of malaria.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-022-07757-w.

Dysphania schraderiana (Schult.) Mosyakin & Clemants - An overlooked medicinal and ritual plant used in Poland

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The paper discusses the traditional ritual, medicinal and insect repellent use of Dysphania schraderiana in Poland, a plant with little ethnobotanical and phytochemical data. Our research suggests that its properties should be further studied comparing it with the related D. botrys and D. ambrosioides.

AIM OF THE WORK

D. schraderiana is an aromatic and medicinal annual herb related to D. ambrosioides and D. botrys and practically absent from historical accounts of plant uses in Europe. The aim of this work is to characterise the current use of D. schraderiana in south east Poland on the background of historical Dysphania species use in Europe.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data on D. schraderiana was collected in 2020, based on interviews with 42 people in rural areas of south-eastern Poland where the species is used today. A range of textual sources were searched including old medicinal herbals, pharmaceutical handbooks, ethnobotanical publications and culinary databases regarding all the uses of Dysphania species in Europe.

RESULTS

In the study area D. schraderiana occurs in the whole spectrum of cultivation stages - from being intentionally cultivated to completely wild. The plant is used mainly as an apotropaic and insect repellent, blessed during Catholic church holidays (mainly Assumption Day), and sometimes used as incense in churches (and blessed on Epiphany Day). D. schraderiana rarely occurs in European historical sources, except sometimes classed as a false, inferior form of D. botrys, which has been known for centuries as a moth repellent and treatment for respiratory illness. We hypothesise that the plant was not easily distinguished from D. botrys and their uses strongly overlapped. For some unknown reason the use of D. botrys died out, whereas a relatively large semi-feral population of D. schraderiana exists in south-eastern Poland where it has remained a culturally important plant.

CONCLUSIONS

D. schraderiana is a rare case of a non-native plant traditionally used within an area of Europe but previously nearly overlooked in European ethnobotanical literature. Historical uses of Dysphania spp. in other areas of Poland and former Poland (now western Ukraine) suggest that the genus was used more widely in regions beyond the one studied. However, a very compact distribution of use suggests that D. schraderiana may have been brought to SE Poland from a single source outside the study area. Its common name, and use as a holy incense plant, is associated it with the well-known biblical tree resin obtained from Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.

Ethnomedicinal Studies, Chemical Composition, and Antibacterial Activity of the Mammea americana L. Bark in the Municipality of Cértegui, Chocó, Colombia

Mammea americana L. is a plant with diverse medicinal uses in the municipality of Cértegui, Chocó, Colombia. This research characterized the ethnomedicinal, chemical, and antibacterial activities of the bark of Mammea americana. Through interviews and semistructured surveys with the community, its ethnomedicinal uses were determined. Compounds present in the bark extract were identified and quantified by gas chromatography-coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and a qualitative analysis was performed by preliminary phytochemistry. Antibacterial activity and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were carried out by agar diffusion and dilution methods, respectively, using ethanolic and aqueous extracts. Ethnomedical data showed that the bark is used to treat 14 conditions, the most representative being gallstones, prostate inflammation, and malaria. Preliminary phytochemical analyses showed the existence of several secondary metabolites such as tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenes and/or steroids, quinones, and saponins. A total of 29 compounds were identified; the most abundant were ethyl 5-oxo-4-(p-toluidine)-2,5-dihydro-3-furancarboxylate, phenol, 4,4′,4″-ethylidynetris, nerolidol, 19-hydroxy-13-epimanoyl oxide, α-elemene, and δ-cadinene. The results showed remarkable antibacterial activity of the ethanolic extract (20 mg/ml) against Staphylococcus aureus (22.6 mm) and Escherichia coli (19.6 mm) and of the crude water extract (20 mg/ml) against Staphylococcus aureus (18.5 mm) and Escherichia coli (12.4 mm). The strongest MIC was for the ethanolic extract with values of 0.357 and 0.897 mg/ml against S. aureus and E. coli strains, respectively, while in the aqueous extract, S. aureus (3.99 mg/ml) and E. coli (4.3 mg/ml) were recorded. It is assumed that the compounds identified in this study could be responsible for the antibacterial activity of the species, as well as the relationship of the identified compounds and metabolites with the ethnomedical uses given by the community, providing a scientific and traditional basis for its different traditional medical uses.

Antidiabetic Medicinal Plants Used in Democratic Republic of Congo: A Critical Review of Ethnopharmacology and Bioactivity Data

Several studies have been conducted and published on medicinal plants used to manage Diabetes Mellitus worldwide. It is of great interest to review available studies from a country or a region to resort to similarities/discrepancies and data quality. Here, we examined data related to ethnopharmacology and bioactivity of antidiabetic plants used in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Data were extracted from Google Scholar, Medline/PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, the Wiley Online Library, Web of Science, and other documents focusing on ethnopharmacology, pharmacology, and phytochemistry antidiabetic plants used in the Democratic Republic of Congo from 2005 to September 2021. The Kew Botanic Royal Garden and Plants of the World Online web databases were consulted to verify the taxonomic information. CAMARADES checklist was used to assess the quality of animal studies and Jadad scores for clinical trials. In total, 213 plant species belonging to 72 botanical families were reported. Only one plant, Droogmansia munamensis, is typically native to the DRC flora; 117 species are growing in the DRC and neighboring countries; 31 species are either introduced from other regions, and 64 are not specified. Alongside the treatment of Diabetes, about 78.13% of plants have multiple therapeutic uses, depending on the study sites. Experimental studies explored the antidiabetic activity of 133 plants, mainly in mice, rats, guinea pigs, and rabbits. Several chemical classes of antidiabetic compounds isolated from 67 plant species have been documented. Rare phase II clinical trials have been conducted. Critical issues included poor quality methodological protocols, author name incorrectly written (16.16%) or absent (14.25%) or confused with a synonym (4.69%), family name revised (17.26%) or missing (1.10%), voucher number not available 336(92.05%), ecological information not reported (49.59%). Most plant species have been identified and authenticated (89.32%). Hundreds of plants are used to treat Diabetes by traditional healers in DRC. However, most plants are not exclusively native to the local flora and have multiple therapeutic uses. The analysis showed the scarcity or absence of high-quality, in-depth pharmacological studies. There is a need to conduct further studies of locally specific species to fill the gap before their introduction into the national pharmacopeia.

Ethnotherapeutic Uses and Phytochemical Composition of Physalis peruviana L.: An Overview

Background

Plant-derived medicines are widespread and continue to increase in traditional and modern medicine, especially in developing countries. Physalis peruviana L. is among the most used plants in conventional medication worldwide. This review aimed to highlight the ethnotherapeutic uses and phytochemical status of identified compounds in P. peruviana.

Methods

Data were collected from Google Scholar, PubMed/Medline, SciFinder, Science Direct, Scopus, the Wiley Online Library, Web of Science, and any other helpful search engine using Physalis peruviana as the primary keyword.

Results

Some countries, worldwide, use P. peruviana in their traditional medicine system to manage diverse ailments, mainly diseases and gastrointestinal tract disorders (25.33%). Leaf was the mostly used part (49.28%), prepared by decoction (31.58%) and overall administrated orally (53.57%) as the main route of admission. Around 502 phytoconstituents were identified in different plant parts, especially fruit (38.19%) ethanol/ethyl acetate extract. In most cases (36.17%), the solvent of the extract was not specified. Several phytochemical classes were found in the plant, especially terpenes (26.09%) and phenolic compounds (14.94%). Esters were also abundant (11.55%). In the terpenes category, carotenoids were the most abundant (11.15% followed by monoterpenes (8.76%) and diterpenes (3.18%). However, flavonoids (5.17%) followed by cinnamic acid derivatives (3.99%), monophenolic compounds (1.79%), and phenolic acids (1.33 M) are the most reported phenolic compounds. Hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid) was the most cited (five times).

Conclusion

P. peruviana plays an essential role in managing diseases in some countries and is rich in chemical compounds, which need to be isolated and investigated pharmacologically before clinical trials.

Ethnomedical uses, chemical constituents, and evidence-based pharmacological properties of Chenopodium ambrosioides L.: extensive overview

Background

The Chenopodium genus is a plant family widely spread worldwide that includes various plant species reputed to possess several medicinal virtues in folk medicines. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. is among the most used plants in traditional medicines worldwide. This review aimed to highlight ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical status, and pharmacological properties of C. ambrosioides L.

Main body of the abstract

The analysis of relevant data highlights various ethnomedicinal uses against human and veterinary diseases in forty countries. Most indications consisted of gastrointestinal tract dysfunctioning troubles and worms parasitemia. Around 330 chemical compounds have been identified in different plant parts, especially in its essential oil fractions (59.84%). However, only a few compounds—mainly monoterpenes and glycosides—have been isolated and characterized. Experimental pharmacological studies validated a large scale of significant health benefits. It appeared that many monoterpenes are antioxidant, insecticidal, trypanocidal, analgesic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, acaricidal, amoebicidal, anthelmintic, anticancer, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, antifertility, antifungal, anti-leishmanial, antimalarial, antipyretic, antisickling, antischistosomal, antiulcer, anxiolytic, immunomodulatory, molluscicidal, and vasorelaxant agents.

Short conclusion

Thus, the Chenopodium ambrosioides species necessitates further chemical studies to isolate and characterize new bioactive secondary metabolites and pharmacological investigations to precise the mechanisms of action before clinical trials.