Modulation of human gut microbiota composition and metabolites by arabinogalactan and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum BB536 in the Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME®)

Survival and Expression of rpoS and grxB of Cronobacter sakazakii in Powdered Infant Formula Under Simulated Gastric Conditions of Newborns

Cronobacter sakazakii can cause severe illnesses in infants, predominantly in preterm newborns, with consumption of contaminated powdered infant formula (PIF) being the major vehicle of infection. Using a dynamic human gastrointestinal simulator called the SHIME, this study examined the effects of gastric acidity and gastric digestion time of newborns on the survival and expression of stress genes of C. sakazakii. Individual strains, inoculated at 7 log CFU/mL into reconstituted PIF, were exposed to gastric pH values of 4.00, 5.00 and 6.00 for 4 h with gradual acidification. The survival results showed that C. sakazakii grew in the stomach portion of the SHIME during a 4-h exposure to pH 4.00, 5.00 and 6.00 by 0.96-1.05, 1.02-1.28 and 1.11-1.73 log CFU/mL, respectively. The expression of two stress genes, rpoS and grxB, throughout gastric digestion was evaluated using reverse transcription qPCR. The upregulation of rpoS and grxB during the 4-h exposure to simulated gastric fluid at pH 4.00 showed that C. sakazakii strains may be experiencing the most stress in the pH 4.00 treatment. The gene expression results also suggest that C. sakazakii strains appeared to develop an acid adaptation response during the 4-h exposure that may facilitate their survival. Altogether, this study highlights that a combination of low gastric acidity, long digestion time in the presence of reconstituted PIF, created a favorable environment for the adaptation and survival of C. sakazakii in the simulation of a newborn's stomach. This study gives directions for future research to further advance our understanding of the behavior of C. sakazakii in the GI tract of newborns.

Lactobacillus reuteri biofilms formed on porous zein/cellulose scaffolds: Synbiotics to regulate intestinal microbiota

Supplementing probiotics or indigestible carbohydrates is a usual strategy to prevent or revert unhealthy states of the gut by reshaping gut microbiota. One criterion that probiotics are efficacious is the capacity to survive in the gastrointestinal tract. Biofilm is the common growth mode of microorganisms with high tolerances toward harsh environments. Suitable scaffolds are crucial for successful biofilm culture and large-scale production of biofilm-phenotype probiotics. However, the role of scaffolds containing indigestible carbohydrates in biofilm formation has not been studied. In this study, porous zein/cellulose composite scaffolds provided nitrogen sources and carbon sources simultaneously at the solid/liquid interfaces, being beneficial to the biofilm formation of Lactobacillus reuteri. The biofilms showed 2.1-17.4 times higher tolerances in different gastrointestinal conditions. In human fecal fermentation, the biofilms combined with the zein/cellulose composite scaffolds act as the "synbiotics" positively modulating the gut microbiota and the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), where biofilms provide probiotics and scaffolds provide prebiotics. The "synbiotics" show a more positive regulation ability than planktonic L. reuteri, presenting potential applications in gut health interventions. These results provide an understanding of the synergistic effects of biofilm-phenotype probiotics and indigestible carbohydrates contained in the "synbiotics" in gut microbiota modulation.

Quantitative differences in synthetic gut microbial inoculums do not affect the final stabilized in vitro community compositions

In vitro studies of synthetic gut microbial communities (SGMCs) can provide valuable insights into the ecological structure and function of gut microbiota. However, the importance of the quantitative composition of an SGMC inoculum and its effect on the eventual stable in vitro microbial community has not been studied. To address this, we constructed two 114-member SGMCs differing only in their quantitative composition-one reflecting the average human fecal microbiome and another mixed in equal proportions based on cell counts. We inoculated each in an automated anaerobic multi-stage in vitro gut fermentor simulating two different colonic conditions, mimicking proximal and distal colons. We replicated this setup with two different nutrient media, periodically sampled the cultures for 27 days, and profiled their microbiome compositions using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. While nutrient medium explained 36% of the variance in microbiome composition, initial inoculum composition failed to show a statistically significant effect. Under all four conditions, paired fecal and equal SGMC inoculums converged to reach stable community compositions resembling each other. Our results have broad implications for simplifying in vitro SGMC investigations. IMPORTANCE In vitro cultivation of synthetic gut microbial communities (SGMCs) can provide valuable insights into the ecological structure and function of gut microbiota. However, it is currently not known whether the quantitative composition of the initial inoculum can influence the eventual stable in vitro community structure. Hence, using two SGMC inoculums consisting of 114 unique species mixed in either equal proportions (Eq inoculum) or resembling proportions in an average human fecal microbiome (Fec inoculum), we show that initial inoculum compositions did not influence the final stable community structure in a multi-stage in vitro gut fermentor. Under two different nutrient media and two different colon conditions (proximal and distal), both Fec and Eq communities converged to resemble each other's community structure. Our results suggest that the time-consuming preparation of SGMC inoculums may not be needed and has broad implications for in vitro SGMC studies.

The digestive fate of beef versus plant-based burgers from bolus to stool

Ultra-processed, plant-based burgers (PB) and traditional comminuted-beef burgers (BB) share similar organoleptic characteristics, yet a knowledge gap exists in understanding how consumption of these divergent physical structures alters the lipemic response and gut microbiota. PB, comprised of highly refined ingredients, is formulated with no intact whole food structure, while BB entraps lipids throughout the myofibrillar protein network. PB presented significantly higher free fatty acid (FFA) bioaccessibility (28.2 ± 4.80 %) compared to BB (8.73 ± 0.52 %), as obtained from their FFA release profiles over digestion time after characterizing them with a modified logistic model (SLM), using the simulated TIM Gastro-Intestinal Model (TIM-1). Additionally, the rate of lipolysis, k, obtained from the SLM for PB (90% CI [0.0175, 0.0277] min^-1) was higher than for BB (90% CI [0.0113, 0.0171] min^-1). Using the Simulated Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME®), the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio (F/B ratio) was significantly higher for PB than BB; and linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe) showed Clostridium and Citrobacter were more highly represented in the microbial community for the PB feed, whereas BB feed differentially enriched Megasphaera, Bacteroides, Alistipes, and Blautia at the genus level. Additionally, short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production was altered (p < 0.05) site-specifically in each colon vessel, which could be attributed to the available substrates and changes in microbial composition. Total SCFAs were significantly higher for PB in the ascending colon (AC) and descending colon (DC) but higher for BB only in the transverse colon (TC). This research illustrates the crucial role of meat analog physical structure in modulating nutritional aspects beyond food composition alone.

Functional Fermented Milk with Fruit Pulp Modulates the In Vitro Intestinal Microbiota

The effect of putative probiotic fermented milk (FM) with buriti pulp (FMB) or passion fruit pulp (FMPF) or without fruit pulp (FMC) on the microbiota of healthy humans was evaluated. FM formulations were administered into a simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem (SHIME^®) to evaluate the viability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), microbiota composition, presence of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and ammonium ions. The probiotic LAB viability in FM was affected by the addition of the fruit pulp. Phocaeicola was dominant in the FMPF and FMB samples; Bifidobacterium was related to FM formulations, while Alistipes was associated with FMPF and FMB, and Lactobacillus and Lacticaseibacillus were predominant in FMC. Trabulsiella was the central element in the FMC, while Mediterraneibacter was the central one in the FMPF and FMB networks. The FM formulations increased the acetic acid, and a remarkably high amount of propionic and butyric acids were detected in the FMB treatment. All FM formulations decreased the ammonium ions compared to the control; FMPF samples stood out for having lower amounts of ammonia. The probiotic FM with fruit pulp boosted the beneficial effects on the intestinal microbiota of healthy humans in addition to increasing SCFA in SHIME^® and decreasing ammonium ions, which could be related to the presence of bioactive compounds.

Role, Relevance, and Possibilities of In vitro fermentation models in human dietary, and gut-microbial studies

Dietary studies play a crucial role in determining the health-benefiting effects of most food substances, including prebiotics, probiotics, functional foods, and bioactive compounds. Such studies involve gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation of dietary substances. In colonic fermentation, any digested food is further metabolized in the gut by the residing colonic microbiota, causing a shift in the gut microenvironment and production of various metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). These diet-induced shifts in the microbial community and metabolite production, which can be assessed through in vitro fermentation models using a donor's fecal microbiota, are well known to impact the health of the host. Although in vivo or animal experiments are the gold standard in dietary studies, recent advancements using different in vitro systems, like artificial colon (ARCOL), mini bioreactor array (MBRA), TNO in vitro model of the colon (TIM), Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME), M-SHIME, CoMiniGut, and Dynamic Gastrointestinal Simulator (SIMGI) make it easy to study the dietary impact in terms of the gut microbiota and metabolites. Such a continuous in vitro system can have multiple compartments corresponding to different parts of the colon, i.e., proximal, transverse, and distal colon, making the findings physiologically more significant. Further, post-fermentation samples can be analyzed using metagenomic, metabolomic, qPCR and flow cytometry approaches. Moreover, studies have shown that in vitro results are in accordance with the in vivo findings, supporting their relevance in dietary studies and giving confidence that shifts in metabolites are only due to microbes. This review meticulously describes the recent advancements in various fermentation models and their relevance in dietary studies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.