Glycosyl glycerides from hydroponic Panax ginseng inhibited NO production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Panaxcerol D from Panax ginseng ameliorates the memory impairment induced by cholinergic blockade or Aβ25-35 peptide in mice

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) has memory impairment associated with aggregation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Although anti-amyloid β (Aβ) protein antibody and chemical drugs can be prescribed in the clinic, they show adverse effects or low effectiveness. Therefore, the development of a new drug is necessarily needed. We focused on the cognitive function of Panax ginseng and tried to find active ingredient(s). We isolated panaxcerol D, a kind of glycosyl glyceride, from the non-saponin fraction of P. ginseng extract.

Methods

We explored effects of acute or sub-chronic administration of panaxcerol D on cognitive function in scopolamine- or Aβ25-35 peptide-treated mice measured by several behavioral tests. After behavioral tests, we tried to unveil the underlying mechanism of panaxcerol D on its cognitive function by Western blotting.

Results

We found that pananxcerol D reversed short-term, long-term and object recognition memory impairments. The decreased extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) or Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) in scopolamine-treated mice was normalized by acute administration of panaxcerol D. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), caspase 3, NF-kB p65, synaptophysin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression levels in Aβ25-35 peptide-treated mice were modulated by sub-chronic administration of panaxcerol D.

Conclusion

Pananxcerol D could improve memory impairments caused by cholinergic blockade or Aβ accumulation through increased phosphorylation level of ERK or its anti-inflammatory effect. Thus, panaxcerol D as one of non-saponin compounds could be used as an active ingredient of P. ginseng for improving cognitive function.

Inhibitory effect of ginsenglactone A from Panax ginseng on the tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells and migration of human ovarian cancer cells

Background

Here, we aimed to assess the inhibitory effect of a new compound from Panax ginseng on the migration of human ovarian cancer cells and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

Methods

A new compound, ginsenglactone A (1), was isolated from ginseng roots, together with seven known compounds (2-8). Spectroscopic data were used to elucidate the chemical structure of 1. The tubular structure formation in HUVECs was assessed by Mayer's hematoxylin staining. The migration of A2780 cells was evaluated using the scratch wound healing assay.

Results

HUVECs treated with 1 had the statistically significant decrease in tubular structure formation compared to the HUVECs treated with compounds 2-8. This effect was enhanced by co-treatment with inhibitors for phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) (LY294002) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) (U0126). Treatment with 1 decreased the expression of phosphorylation of ERK, PI3K, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor2 (VEGFR2), Akt, and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). In addition, the ability of A2780 cells to cover the scratched area were also decreased. This effect was enhanced by co-treatment with U0126. Lastly, treatment with 1 decreased the phosphorylation of ERK, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and MMP-2.

Conclusion

These results suggest that ginsenglactone A is a potential inhibitor of HUVEC tubular structure formation and A2780 cellular migration, which may be helpful for understanding its anticancer mechanism.

Hydroponic Ginseng ROOT Mediated with CMC Polymer-Coated Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Cellular Apoptosis via Downregulation of BCL-2 Gene Expression in A549 Lung Cancer Cell Line

The unique and tailorable physicochemical features of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) synthesized from green sources make them attractive for use in cancer treatment. Hydroponic-cultured ginseng-root-synthesized ZnO-NPs (HGRCm-ZnO NPs) were coated with O-carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) polymer, which stabilized and enhanced the biological efficacy of the nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The flower-shaped nanoparticles were crystalline in nature with a particle size of 28 nm. To evaluate if these NPs had anti-lung cancer activity, analysis was performed on a human lung carcinoma cell line (A549). HGRCm-ZnO nanoparticles showed less toxicity to normal keratinocytes (HaCaTs), at concentrations up to 20 µg/mL, than A549 cancer cells. Additionally, these NPs showed dose-dependent colony formation and cell migration inhibition ability, which makes them more promising for lung cancer treatment. Additionally, Hoechst and propidium iodide dye staining also confirmed that the NP formulation had apoptotic activity in cancer cells. Further, to evaluate the mechanism of cancer cell death via checking the gene expression, HGRCm ZnO NPs upregulated the BAX and Caspase 3 and 9 expression levels but downregulated Bcl-2 expression, indicating that the nanoformulation induced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis. Moreover, these preliminary results suggest that HGRCm ZnO NPs can be a potential candidate for future lung cancer treatment.

Hydroponic Cultured Ginseng Leaves Zinc Oxides Nanocomposite Stabilized with CMC Polymer for Degradation of Hazardous Dyes in Wastewater Treatment

This study demonstrated the synthesis of o-carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC)-stabilized zinc oxide nanocomposites (ZnO NCs) combined with aqueous leaves extracts of hydroponically cultured ginseng and used as a photocatalyst for the degradation of hazardous dyes, including malachite green (MG), rhodamine B (RB), and congo red (CR) under ultraviolet illumination. Hydroponic ginseng leaves contain bioactive components, namely ginsenoside and natural polyphenol, which prompt ginseng's biological effect. Besides, the CMC polymer is naturally biodegradable, stabilizes the nanoformation and enhances the solubility of ginsenoside. The hydroponic ginseng leaves zinc oxide CMC nanocomposites (GL-CMC-ZnO NCs) were synthesized using the co-precipitation method and characterized using different analytical methods. The FTIR analysis identified significant phytochemicals in the leaves extracts and cotton-shape morphology observed using FE-TEM analysis. The XRD analysis also determined that the crystallite size was 28 nm. The photocatalyst degraded CR, RB, and MG dyes by approximately 87%, 94%, and 96% within contact times of 10, 20, 25, and 30 min, respectively, when the dye concentration was 15 mg/L. As far as our knowledge, this is the first report on hydroponic ginseng NCs incorporated with the CMC polymer for the degradation of hazardous dyes on wastewater treatment. This study can add significant value to large-scale wastewater treatment.

Cichorium pumilum Jacq Extract Inhibits LPS-Induced Inflammation via MAPK Signaling Pathway and Protects Rats From Hepatic Fibrosis Caused by Abnormalities in the Gut-Liver Axis

The development of liver fibrosis is closely related to the gut microbiota, and the "gut-liver axis" is the most important connection between the two. ethyl acetate extract of Cichorium pumilum Jacq (CGEA) is an herbal extract consisting mainly of sesquiterpenoids. The anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects of CGEA have been reported, but the anti-fibrotic effects of CGEA via intestinal microbes and the "gut-liver axis" cycle have rarely been reported. In this study, we observed that CGEA not only directly attenuated inflammatory factor levels in inflamed mice, but also attenuated liver inflammation as well as liver fibrosis degeneration in rats with liver fibrosis caused by colitis. We observed in vitro that CGEA significantly promoted the growth of Bifidobacterium adolescentis. Similarly, fecal 16S rDNA sequencing of liver fibrosis rats showed that CGEA intervention significantly altered the composition of the intestinal microbiota of liver fibrosis rats. CGEA increased the abundance of intestinal microbiota, specifically, CGEA increased the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, CGEA could significantly increase the levels of Ruminococcus. In addition, CGEA intervention significantly protected intestinal mucosal tissues and improved intestinal barrier function in rats. Lactucin is the main sesquiterpenoid in CGEA, and HPLC results showed its content in CGEA was up to 6%. Lactucin has been reported to have significant anti-inflammatory activity, and in this study, we found that Lactucin decreased p38 kinases (p38), phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and protein kinase B (AKT) protein phosphorylation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells, thereby reducing mRNA expression and protein expression of pro-inflammatory factors inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inhibiting the release of inflammatory factors interleukin (IL)-6 and nitric oxide (NO), exerting anti-inflammatory effects. In summary, the prevention of liver fibrosis caused by intestinal inflammation by CGEA may be achieved by regulating the intestinal microbiota and restoring the intestinal barrier thereby improving the "gut-liver axis" circulation, reducing liver inflammation, and ultimately alleviating liver fibrosis. Notably, the direct anti-inflammatory effect of CGEA may be due to its content of Lactucin, which can exert anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the phosphorylation of Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Akt signaling pathways.

Improved Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, and Anti-adipogenic Properties of Hydroponic Ginseng Fermented by Leuconostoc mesenteroides KCCM 12010P

Hydroponic ginseng (HPG) has been known to have various bio-functionalities, including an antioxidant effect. Recently, fermentation by lactic acid bacteria has been studied to enhance bio-functional activities in plants by biologically converting their chemical compounds. HPG roots and shoots were fermented with Leuconostoc mesenteroides KCCM 12010P isolated from kimchi. The total phenolic compounds, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-adipogenic effects of these fermented samples were evaluated in comparison with non-fermented samples (control). During 24 h fermentation of HPG roots and shoots, the viable number of cells increased to 7.50 Log colony forming unit (CFU)/mL. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the fermented HPG roots increased by 107.19% and 645.59%, respectively, compared to non-fermented HPG roots. The antioxidant activity of fermented HPG, as assessed by 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), β-carotene-linoleic, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, was also significantly enhanced. In an anti-inflammatory effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, the nitric oxide content and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) decreased when treated with fermented samples. Simultaneously, lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocyte was reduced when treated with fermented HPG. Fermentation by L. mesenteroides showed improved antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-adipogenic HPG effects. These results show that fermented HPG has potential for applications in the functional food industry.

JAX2, an ethanol extract of Hyssopus cuspidatus Boriss, can prevent bronchial asthma by inhibiting MAPK/NF-κB inflammatory signaling

BACKGROUND

Hyssopus cuspidatus Boriss has been used to treat bronchial asthma for many years in Uighur medicine. JAX2, an ethanol extract from this plant, has effectiveness against bronchial asthma. However, the molecular basis for the anti-inflammatory effects of JAX2 remains unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the mechanism of JAX2 against bronchial asthma.

METHODS

We established an asthma model in rats using ovalbumin (OVA), and an inflammatory model in RAW264.7 cells using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. To evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of JAX2, the concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, IL-17, eotaxin and immunoglobulin (Ig)E were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Cell viability was investigated by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)2H-tetrazolium, inner salt (MTS) assay. Further, nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined using Griess reagent and 2,7-dichlorofluorescein diacetate. The phosphorylation of p-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 kinases (p38) and p-inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase (IKK), and nuclear translocation of p-p65 kinases (p-p65) were determined by immunofluorescence to uncover the effects of JAX2 on the Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways.

RESULTS

After JAX2 administration to rats, Interferon (IFN)-γ concentrations in BALF increased significantly. Further, the concentrations of TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6, IL-17 and eotaxin in BALF, and IgE in serum decreased. JAX2 decreased TNF-α, IL-6 and NO in cell supernatant, and reduced ROS intracellularly. Concurrently, IFN-γ concentrations increased in cell supernatant significantly. In LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells, JAX2 inhibited phosphorylation of p-ERK, p-JNK and p-38 MAPK. The subsequent phosphorylation of p-IKK and nuclear translocation of the p-p65 subunit of NF-κB were also suppressed.

CONCLUSION

Based on these findings, we believe that JAX2 has both preventive and treatment effects in bronchial asthma. Furthermore, in the RAW264.7 cell inflammatory model, JAX2 also inhibited NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Anti-inflammatory effects of a novel compound, MPQP, through the inhibition of IRAK1 signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Small-molecule inhibitors are widely used to treat a variety of inflammatory diseases. In this study, we found a novel anti-inflammatory compound, 1-[(2R,4S)-2-methyl-4-(phenylamino)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-1-yl]prop-2-en-1-one (MPQP). It showed strong anti-inflammatory effects in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. These effects were exerted through the inhibition of the production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Furthermore, MPQP decreased the expression levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Additionally, it mediated the inhibition of the phosphorylation of p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), the inhibitor of κBα (IκBα), and their upstream kinases, IκB kinase (IKK) α/β, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MKK) 3/6, and MKK4. Furthermore, the expression of IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1) that regulates NF-κB, p38, and the JNK signaling pathways, was also increased by MPQP. These results indicate that MPQP regulates the IRAK1-mediated inflammatory signaling pathways by targeting IRAK1 or its upstream factors.

Comparative study on anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of hydroponic ginseng and soil-cultured ginseng

Hydroponic ginseng (HPG) and soil-cultured ginseng (SCG) were extracted in 70% methanol to quantify relative content of 8 ginsenosides and polyphenolic compounds, and flavonoids to compare their antioxidative effects. Level of nitric oxide and inflammatory targets produced in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were measured. 2-year-old HPG shoots contained highest levels of ginsenoside Rb2, Rb3, Rd, Re, and F1. Total polyphenol content was highest in shoots of HPG, followed by roots of HPG and SCG. HPG shoots had high radical scavenging activity and an elevated ability to inhibit linoleic acid oxidation. 2-year-old HPG shoots reduced nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells by 47%, whereas 6-year-old SCG roots reduced it by only 21%. HPG also significantly lowered mRNA expression of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, as determined by RT-PCR, compared to SCGs. Therefore, HPG may have potential for utilization as an alternative to SCG, because of superior antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Src/Syk-Targeted Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Triterpenoidal Saponins from Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis) Seeds

Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng (family Cucurbitaceae), also known as gac, or red melon, is an edible Southeast Asian fruit valued for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Specifically, Momordicae Semen, the seeds of the gac fruit, is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat boils, rheumatic pain, muscle spasm, hemorrhoids, and hemangiomas. In this study, a chemical investigation into a gac seed ethanol (EtOH) extract resulted in the identification of three triterpenoidal saponins (1-3), which were investigated for their anti-inflammatory effects. Among the saponins, momordica saponin I (compound 3) reduced the production of nitric oxide (NO) in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells without inducing cytotoxicity. The mRNA levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 were decreased by momordica saponin I. Additionally, the translocation of p65 and p50 (subunits of the transcription factor NF-[Formula: see text]B) into the nucleus was remarkably inhibited. Furthermore, the phosphorylation levels of inflammatory signaling proteins (I[Formula: see text]B[Formula: see text], Src, and Syk) known to be upstream regulatory molecules of p65 were decreased under momordica saponin I-treated conditions. The molecular targets of momordica saponin I were confirmed in overexpression experiments and through immunoblot analyses with Src and Syk. This study provides evidence that momordica saponin I could be beneficial in treating inflammatory diseases, and should be considered a bioactive immunomodulatory agent with anti-inflammatory properties.

Thymoquinone: An IRAK1 inhibitor with in vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activities

Thymoquinone (TQ) is a bioactive component of black seed (Nigella sativa) volatile oil and has been shown to have anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. In the present study, we explored the molecular mechanisms that underlie the anti-inflammatory effect of TQ and its target proteins using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine macrophage-like RAW264.7 and human monocyte-like U937 cells, together with LPS/D-galactosamine (GalN)-induced acute hepatitis and HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis mouse models. TQ strongly inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) and repressed NO synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, cyclooxygenase (COX)−2, interleukin (IL)−6, and IL-1β expression in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells. Treatment of LPS/D-GalN–induced hepatitis and EtOH/HCl–induced gastritis mouse models with TQ significantly ameliorated disease symptoms. Using luciferase reporter gene assays, we also showed that the nuclear levels of transcription factors and phosphorylation patterns of signaling proteins, activator protein (AP)−1, and nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathways were all affected by TQ treatment. Finally, we used additional kinase and luciferase validation assays with interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1) to show that IRAK1 is directly suppressed by TQ treatment. Together, these findings strongly suggest that the anti-inflammatory actions of TQ are caused by suppression of IRAK-linked AP-1/NF-κB pathways.