1
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Chen Q, Yi S, Yang L, Zhu L. Penetration pathways, influencing factors and predictive models for dermal absorption of exobiotic molecules: A critical review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 927:172390. [PMID: 38608904 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
This review provides a comprehensive summary of the skin penetration pathways of xenobiotics, including metals, organic pollutants, and nanoparticles (NPs), with a particular focus on the methodologies employed to elucidate these penetration routes. The impacts of the physicochemical properties of exogenous substances and the properties of solvent carriers on the penetration efficiencies were discussed. Furthermore, the review outlines the steady-state and transient models for predicting the skin permeability of xenobiotics, emphasizing the models which enable realistic visualization of pharmaco-kinetic phenomena via detailed geometric representations of the skin microstructure, such as stratum corneum (SC) (bricks and mortar) and skin appendages (hair follicles and sebaceous gland units). Limitations of published research, gaps in current knowledge, and recommendations for future research are highlighted, providing insight for a better understanding of the skin penetration behavior of xenobiotics and associated health risks in practical application contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoying Chen
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Shujun Yi
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, PR China.
| | - Liping Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Lingyan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
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2
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Shindo M, Ishida M, Tokumura M, Wang Q, Miyake Y, Amagai T, Makino M. Determination of potential dermal exposure rates of phosphorus flame retardants via the direct contact with a car seat using artificial skin. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 353:141555. [PMID: 38417497 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Dermal exposure to phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) has received much attention as a major alternative exposure route in recent years. However, the information regarding dermal exposure via direct contact with a product is limited. In addition, in the commonly used dermal permeability test, the target substance is dissolved in a solvent, which is unrealistic. In this study, a dermal permeability test of PFRs in three car seats was performed using artificial skin. The PFR concentrations in the car seats are 0.12 wt% tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), 0.030-0.25 wt% tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP), 0.15 wt% triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), 0.89 wt% cresyl diphenyl phosphate (CsDPhP), 0.074 wt% tricresyl phosphate (TCsP), and 0.46-4.7 wt% diethylene glycol bis [di (2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (DEG-BDCIPP). The mean skin permeation rates for a contact time of 24 h are 14 (TCEP), 5.4-160 (TCPP), 0.67 (CsDPhP), 0.38 (TPhP), and 3.3-58 ng cm-2 h-1 (DEG-BDCIPP). The concentrations of TCsP in receptor liquid were lower than the limit of quantification at the contact time of 24 h. The skin permeation rates were significantly affected by the type of car seat (e.g., fabric or non-fabric). The potential dermal TCPP exposure rate for an adult via direct contact with the car seat during the average daily contact time (1.3 h), which was the highest value assessed in this study, was estimated to be 16,000 ng kg-1 day-1, which is higher than that related to inhalation and dust ingestion reported as significant exposure route of PFRs in previous studies. These facts reveal that dermal exposure associated with direct contact with the product might be an important exposure pathway for PFRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai Shindo
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
| | - Maho Ishida
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
| | - Masahiro Tokumura
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan.
| | - Qi Wang
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan; National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Japan, 6-21-1 Nagao, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8585, Japan
| | - Yuichi Miyake
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan; Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, 79-7 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama, 240-8501, Japan.
| | - Takashi Amagai
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
| | - Masakazu Makino
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
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3
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Yang L, Yao Y, Zeng Y, Yu S, Liu Y, An Q, Aamir M, Xu C, Hayat K, Liu W. Exposure to Short- and Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Nested Case-Control Study in Eastern China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:3665-3676. [PMID: 38358856 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Toxicological studies have indicated that exposure to chlorinated paraffins (CPs) may disrupt intracellular glucose and energy metabolism. However, limited information exists regarding the impact of human CP exposure on glucose homeostasis and its potential association with an increased risk of developing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Here, we conducted a prospective study with a nested case-control design to evaluate the link between short- and medium-chain CP (SCCPs and MCCPs) exposures during pregnancy and the risk of GDM. Serum samples from 102 GDM-diagnosed pregnant women and 204 healthy controls were collected in Hangzhou, Eastern China. The median (interquartile range, IQR) concentration of SCCPs was 161 (127, 236) ng/mL in the GDM group compared to 127 (96.9, 176) ng/mL in the non-GDM group (p < 0.01). For MCCPs, the GDM group had a median concentration of 144 (117, 174) ng/mL, while the control group was 114 (78.1, 162) ng/mL (p < 0.01). Compared to the lowest quartile as the reference, the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of GDM were 7.07 (95% CI: 2.87, 17.40) and 3.34 (95% CI: 1.48, 7.53) in the highest quartile of ∑SCCP and ∑MCCP levels, respectively, with MCCPs demonstrating an inverted U-shaped association with GDM. Weighted quantile sum regression evaluated the joint effects of all CPs on GDM and glucose homeostasis. Among all CP congeners, C13H23Cl5 and C10H16Cl6 were the crucial variables driving the positive association with the GDM risk. Our results demonstrated a significant positive association between CP concentration in maternal serum and GDM risk, and exposure to SCCPs and MCCPs may disturb maternal glucose homeostasis. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the health risks of CP exposure and the role of environmental contaminants in the pathogenesis of GDM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yu Yao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yujia Zeng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Shijie Yu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yingxue Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qi An
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Muhammad Aamir
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Exposure and Health Intervention, Interdisciplinary Research Academy, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou 310015, China
| | - Chenye Xu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
| | - Kashif Hayat
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Exposure and Health Intervention, Interdisciplinary Research Academy, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou 310015, China
| | - Weiping Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Environmental Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Exposure and Health Intervention, Interdisciplinary Research Academy, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou 310015, China
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4
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Wang Z, Geng S, Zhang J, Yang H, Shi S, Zhao L, Luo X, Cao Z. Methods for the characterisation of dermal uptake: Progress and perspectives for organophosphate esters. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 183:108400. [PMID: 38142534 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are a group of pollutants that are widely detected in the environment at high concentrations. They can adversely affect human health through multiple routes of exposure, including dermal uptake. Although attention has been paid to achieving an accurate and complete quantification of the dermal uptake of OPEs, existing evaluation methods and parameters have obvious weaknesses. This study reviewed two main categories of methodologies, namely the relative absorption (RA) model and the permeability coefficient (PC) model, which are widely used to assess the dermal uptake of OPEs. Although the PC model is more accurate and is increasingly used, the most important parameter in this model, the permeability coefficient (Kp), has been poorly characterised for OPEs, resulting in considerable errors in the estimation of the dermal uptake of OPEs. Thus, the detailed in vitro methods for the determination of Kp are summarised and sorted. Furthermore, the commonly used skin membranes are identified and the factors affecting Kp and corresponding mechanisms are discussed. In addition, the experimental conditions, conclusions, and available data on Kp values of the OPEs are thoroughly summarised. Finally, the corresponding knowledge gaps are proposed, and a more accurate and sophisticated experimental system and unknown Kp values for OPEs are suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhexi Wang
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Shuxiang Geng
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Jiayi Zhang
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Hengkang Yang
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Shiyu Shi
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Leicheng Zhao
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Xiaojun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China.
| | - Zhiguo Cao
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China.
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5
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Wang H, Wang H, Wang K, Xiong J, Huang S, Wolfson JM, Koutrakis P. Characterization of chemical transport in human skin and building material. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 458:131917. [PMID: 37379590 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) are ubiquitous in indoor environment. They can emit from source into air, and subsequently penetrate human skin into blood through dermal uptake, causing adverse health effects. This study develops a two-layer analytical model to characterize the VOC/SVOC dermal uptake process, which is then extended to predict VOC emissions from two-layer building materials or furniture. Based on the model, the key transport parameters of chemicals in every skin or material layer are determined via a hybrid optimization method using data from experiments and literature. The measured key parameters of SVOCs for dermal uptake are more accurate than those from previous studies using empirical correlations. Moreover, the association between the absorption amount of studied chemicals into blood and age is preliminarily investigated. Further exposure analysis reveals that the contribution of dermal uptake to the total exposure can be comparable with that of inhalation for the examined SVOCs. This study makes the first attempt to accurately determine the key parameters of chemicals in skin, which is demonstrated to be critical for health risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Haimei Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Keliang Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jianyin Xiong
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Shaodan Huang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, United States.
| | - Jack M Wolfson
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, United States
| | - Petros Koutrakis
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, United States
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6
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Mu YW, Cheng D, Zhang CL, Zhao XL, Zeng T. The potential health risks of short-chain chlorinated paraffin: A mini-review from a toxicological perspective. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 872:162187. [PMID: 36781137 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are ubiquitously distributed in various environmental matrics due to their wide production and consumption globally in the past and ongoing production and use in some developing countries. SCCPs have been detected in various human samples including serum, milk, placenta, nail, and hair, and internal SCCP levels were found to be positively correlated with biomarkers of some diseases. While the environmental occurrence has been reported in a lot of studies, the toxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms of SCCPs remain largely unknown. The current tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) recommended by the world health organization/international programme on chemical safety (WHO/IPCS, 100 μg/kg bw/d) and the UK Committee on Toxicity (COT, 30 μg/kg bw/d) were obtained based on a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of SCCP from the repeated-dose study (90 d exposure) in rodents performed nearly 40 years ago. Importantly, the health risks assessment of SCCPs in a variety of studies has shown that the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) may approach and even over the established TDI by UK COT. Furthermore, recent studies revealed that lower doses of SCCPs could also result in damage to multiple organs including the liver, kidney, and thyroid. Long-term effects of SCCPs at environmental-related doses are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Wen Mu
- Institute of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Dong Cheng
- Department of Health Test and Detection, Shandong Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
| | - Cui-Li Zhang
- Institute of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Xiu-Lan Zhao
- Institute of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China.
| | - Tao Zeng
- Institute of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China.
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7
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Yin S, McGrath TJ, Cseresznye A, Bombeke J, Poma G, Covaci A. Assessment of silicone wristbands for monitoring personal exposure to chlorinated paraffins (C 8-36): A pilot study. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 224:115526. [PMID: 36813067 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a major environmental concern due to their ubiquitous presence in the environment. Since human exposure to CPs can significantly differ among individuals, it is essential to have an effective tool for monitoring personal exposure to CPs. In this pilot study, silicone wristbands (SWBs) were employed as a personal passive sampler to measure time-weighted average exposure to CPs. Twelve participants were asked to wear a pre-cleaned wristband for a week during the summer of 2022, and three field samplers (FSs) in different micro-environments were also deployed. The samples were then analyzed for CP homologs by LC-Q-TOFMS. In worn SWBs, the median concentrations of quantifiable CP classes were 19 ng/g wb, 110 ng/g wb, and 13 ng/g wb for ∑SCCPs, ∑MCCPs, and ∑LCCPs (C18-20), respectively. For the first time, lipid content is reported in worn SWBs, which could be a potential impact factor in the kinetics of the accumulation process for CPs. Results showed that micro-environments were key contributors to dermal exposure to CPs, while a few outliers suggested other sources of exposure. CP exposure via dermal contact showed an increased contribution and thus poses a nonnegligible potential risk to humans in daily life. Results presented here provide proof of concept of the use of SWBs as a cheap and non-invasive personal sampler in exposure studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Yin
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium; Key Laboratory of Pollution Exposure and Health Intervention of Zhejiang Province, Interdisciplinary Research Academy (IRA), Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China.
| | - Thomas J McGrath
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Adam Cseresznye
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Jasper Bombeke
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Giulia Poma
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium.
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Huang J, Zhao L, Shi Y, Zeng X, Sun W, Zhao X, Liu R, Wu Q, Dong G, Chen D, Liu X. Characterization of short-, medium- and long-chain chlorinated paraffins in ambient PM 2.5 from the Pearl River Delta, China. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 175:107932. [PMID: 37116426 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Research on the environmental occurrence of long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs) in ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is still scarce. In the present study, short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) and LCCPs were simultaneously quantified and profiled in PM2.5 samples collected from 96 primary or secondary schools in the Pearl River Delta of South China. SCCPs, MCCPs and LCCPs were detected in higher than 90% samples with concentrations in the range of 0.832-109, 1.02-110, and 0.173-17.4 ng/m3, respectively. The dominant congener groups of SCCPs, MCCPs and LCCPs were C13Cl6-8, C14Cl7-8, and C18Cl7-9, respectively. The concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs were higher in summer than in winter, while an opposite seasonal trend was observed for LCCPs. Principal components analysis showed there were seasonal variations in the congener group patterns with C13Cl6-7 and C14Cl7 more abundant in summer than in winter. Concentrations of CPs also exhibited slight spatial variations. Exposure risk assessment based on different age groups suggested exposure to PM2.5-associated CPs would not pose significant health risk. The present study expands the existing knowledge of CPs contamination in atmospheric environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Environmental Pollution and Health Risk Assessment, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Lei Zhao
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Yumeng Shi
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiaowen Zeng
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Environmental Pollution and Health Risk Assessment, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Wenwen Sun
- SCIEX (China) Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510623, China
| | | | - Ruqing Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Environmental Pollution and Health Risk Assessment, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Qizhen Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Environmental Pollution and Health Risk Assessment, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Guanghui Dong
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Environmental Pollution and Health Risk Assessment, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Da Chen
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiaotu Liu
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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9
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Weng J, Yu H, Zhang H, Gao L, Qiao L, Ai Q, Liu Y, Liu Y, Xu M, Zhao B, Zheng M. Health Risks Posed by Dermal and Inhalation Exposure to High Concentrations of Chlorinated Paraffins Found in Soft Poly(vinyl chloride) Curtains. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:5580-5591. [PMID: 36976867 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are used in many products, including soft poly(vinyl chloride) curtains, which are used in many indoor environments. Health hazards posed by CPs in curtains are poorly understood. Here, chamber tests and an indoor fugacity model were used to predict CP emissions from soft poly(vinyl chloride) curtains, and dermal uptake through direct contact was assessed using surface wipes. Short-chain and medium-chain CPs accounted for 30% by weight of the curtains. Evaporation drives CP migration, like for other semivolatile organic plasticizers, at room temperature. The CP emission rate to air was 7.09 ng/(cm2 h), and the estimated short-chain and medium-chain CP concentrations were 583 and 95.3 ng/m3 in indoor air 21.2 and 172 μg/g in dust, respectively. Curtains could be important indoor sources of CPs to dust and air. The calculated total daily CP intakes from air and dust were 165 ng/(kg day) for an adult and 514 ng/(kg day) for a toddler, and an assessment of dermal intake through direct contact indicated that touching just once could increase intake by 274 μg. The results indicated that curtains, which are common in houses, could pose considerable health risks through inhalation of and dermal contact with CPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyuan Weng
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Haoran Yu
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy Of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Haijun Zhang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy Of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Lirong Gao
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Lin Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Qiaofeng Ai
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yin Liu
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Ming Xu
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Minghui Zheng
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
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10
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Zhang S, Cheng Z, Yang M, Guo Z, Zhao L, Baqar M, Lu Y, Wang L, Sun H. Percutaneous Penetration of Liquid Crystal Monomers (LCMs) by In Vitro Three-Dimensional Human Skin Equivalents: Possible Mechanisms and Implications for Human Dermal Exposure Risks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:4454-4463. [PMID: 36867107 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Liquid crystal monomers (LCMs) are indispensable materials in liquid crystal displays, which have been recognized as emerging persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic organic pollutants. Occupational and nonoccupational exposure risk assessment suggested that dermal exposure is the primary exposure route for LCMs. However, the bioavailability and possible mechanisms of dermal exposure to LCMs via skin absorption and penetration remain unclear. Herein, we used EpiKutis 3D-Human Skin Equivalents (3D-HSE) to quantitatively assess the percutaneous penetration of nine LCMs, which were detected in e-waste dismantling workers' hand wipes with high detection frequencies. LCMs with higher log Kow and greater molecular weight (MW) were more difficult to penetrate through the skin. Molecular docking results showed that ABCG2 (an efflux transporter) may be responsible for percutaneous penetration of LCMs. These results suggest that passive diffusion and active efflux transport may be involved in the penetration of LCMs across the skin barrier. Furthermore, the occupational dermal exposure risks evaluated based on the dermal absorption factor suggested the underestimation of the continuous LCMs' health risks via dermal previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohan Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Zhipeng Cheng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Ming Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Zijin Guo
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Leicheng Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Mujtaba Baqar
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yuan Lu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Lei Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Hongwen Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
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11
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Guida Y, Matsukami H, Kajiwara N. Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in polyvinyl chloride consumer goods available in the Japanese market. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 849:157762. [PMID: 35926616 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs), including short-chain CPs (SCCPs) and medium-chain CPs (MCCPs), are hazardous chemical additives widely applied as plasticizers and flame retardants in polymers, mainly in polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In 2017, SCCPs were listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). MCCPs were proposed for listing as POPs in 2021. SCCPs are also restricted under the Basel Convention, with two tentative low POP content (LPC) limits (100 and 10,000 mg kg-1) for SCCPs in waste. As a signatory Party of both conventions, Japan must ensure their implementation and manage SCCP wastes in environmentally sound ways. Therefore, we aimed to assess the occurrence of SCCPs and MCCPs in PVC consumer goods (n = 87) available in the Japanese market. CPs were detected in 48% of the samples. Regarding positive samples, children's products and toys (1.3-120,000 mg kg-1) were more impacted by SCCPs whereas electrical and electronic cables (1.2-59,000 mg kg-1) and house interior products (3.5-550 mg kg-1) were more impacted by MCCPs. Fourteen and four samples exceeded the LPC limit of 100 and 10,000 mg kg-1 for SCCPs, respectively. Most products were impacted by CP contents (<1 % w/w) considerably below those reported as intentional CP uses in PVC. However, 11 samples with total CP contents ranging from 1.3% to 15 % (w/w) might have been impacted by intentional CP use as secondary plasticizer in PVC. Most of the impacted consumer goods available in the Japanese market were manufactured overseas, highlighting that only restricting POPs nationally is not enough for thorough implementation of the Basel and Stockholm Conventions. Therefore, imported PVC consumer goods, PVC waste and PVC recycling streams need to be monitored as relevant potential sources of SCCPs worldwide, even where the national industry strictly follows the restriction of such chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yago Guida
- Material Cycles Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Laboratório de Micropoluentes Jan Japenga, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho 373, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Hidenori Matsukami
- Material Cycles Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan
| | - Natsuko Kajiwara
- Material Cycles Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan
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12
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Zhang R, Li N, Li J, Zhao C, Luo Y, Wang Y, Jiang G. Percutaneous absorption and exposure risk assessment of organophosphate esters in children's toys. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 440:129728. [PMID: 35969952 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The percutaneous penetration and exposure risk of organophosphate esters (OPEs) from children's toys remains largely unknown. Percutaneous penetration of OPEs was evaluated by EPISkin™ model. Chlorinated OPEs (Cl-OPEs) and alkyl OPEs, except tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, exhibited a fast absorption rate and good dermal penetration ability with cumulative absorptions of 57.6-127 % of dosed OPEs. Cumulative absorptions of OPEs through skin cells were inversely associated with their molecular weight and log octanol-water partition coefficient. Additionally, a quantitative structure-activity relationship model indicated that topological charge and steric features of OPEs were closely related to the transdermal permeability of these chemicals. With the clarification of the factors affecting the transdermal penetration of OPEs, the level and exposure risk of OPEs in actual toys were studied. The summation of 18 OPE concentrations in 199 toy samples collected from China ranged from 6.82 to 228,254 ng/g, of which Cl-OPEs presented the highest concentration. Concentrations of OPEs in toys exhibited clear type differences. Daily exposure to OPEs via dermal, hand-to-mouth contact, and mouthing was evaluated, and dermal contact was a significant route for children's exposure to OPEs. Hazard quotients for noncarcinogenic risk assessment were below 1, indicating that the health risk of OPEs via toys was relatively low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruirui Zhang
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China; Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Ningqi Li
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Juan Li
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Chunyan Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yadan Luo
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yawei Wang
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310000, China; Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Guibin Jiang
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
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South L, Saini A, Harner T, Niu S, Parnis JM, Mastin J. Medium- and long-chain chlorinated paraffins in air: A review of levels, physicochemical properties, and analytical considerations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 843:157094. [PMID: 35779735 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are synthetic chemicals that are produced at high volumes and have a global presence. CPs are generally divided into three groups based on their carbon chain lengths: short-chain CPs (SCCPs, C10-13), medium-chain CPs (MCCPs, C14-17), and long-chain CPs (LCCPs, C≥18). SCCPs have been formally recognized as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and have been listed under the Stockholm Convention on POPs. Concerns about increases in MCCP and LCCP production as replacements for SCCP products are rising, given their similar properties to SCCPs and the fact that they remain relatively understudied with only a few reported measurements in air. Passive air samplers with polyurethane foam disks (PUF-PAS), which have been successfully applied to SCCPs, provide an opportunity to expand the existing body of data on MCCP and LCCP air concentrations, as they are inexpensive and require little maintenance. The uptake of MCCPs and LCCPs by PUF disk samplers is characterized in this paper based on newly derived PUF-air partitioning coefficients using COSMOtherm. The ability of PUF disk samplers to capture both gas-phase and particle fractions is important because MCCPs and LCCPs have reduced volatility compared to SCCPs and therefore are mainly associated with particulate matter in air. In addition, due to their use as additives in plastics and rubber products, they are associated with micro- and nanoplastics, which are considered to be potential vectors for the long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) of these chemicals. The review has highlighted other limitations to reporting of MCCPs and LCCPs in air, including the lack of suitable analytical standards and the requirement for advanced analytical methods to detect and resolve these complex mixtures. Overall, this review indicates that further research is needed in many areas for medium- and long-chain chlorinated paraffins in order to better understand their occurrence, transport and fate in air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren South
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Amandeep Saini
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada.
| | - Tom Harner
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Shan Niu
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, United States
| | - J Mark Parnis
- Department of Chemistry and Canadian Environmental Modelling Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada
| | - Jacob Mastin
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
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14
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Cheng Z, Shi Q, Wang Y, Zhao L, Li X, Sun Z, Lu Y, Liu N, Su G, Wang L, Sun H. Electronic-Waste-Driven Pollution of Liquid Crystal Monomers: Environmental Occurrence and Human Exposure in Recycling Industrial Parks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:2248-2257. [PMID: 35107275 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Liquid crystal monomers (LCMs) in liquid crystal displays (LCDs) may be released into the environment, especially in electronic waste (e-waste) recycling industrial parks with a high pollution risk. However, little has been known about the environmental release and human exposure to LCMs until now. Herein, a total of 45 LCMs were detected in LCDs of commonly used smartphones and computers by high-resolution mass spectrometry with suspect screening analysis. Fluorinated biphenyls and their analogs were the dominant LCMs. Based on available standards of the screening results and previous studies, 55 LCMs were quantified in samples from an e-waste recycling industrial park in Central China. The LCMs were frequently detected in outdoor dust (n = 43), workshop #1 indoor dust (n = 53), and hand (n = 43) and forehead wipes (n = 43), with median concentrations of 6950 ng/g, 67,400 ng/g, 46,100 ng/m2, and 62,100 ng/m2, respectively. The median estimated daily intake values of the LCMs via dust ingestion and dermal absorption were 48.3 and 16.5 ng/kg body weight/day, respectively, indicating a high occupational exposure risk of these compounds. In addition, 16 LCMs were detected in the serum of eight elderly people (≥60 years old) with over 5 years of experience in e-waste dismantling operations, resulting in a total concentration range of 3.9-26.3 ng/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhipeng Cheng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Qingyang Shi
- Department of Environmental Science, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Yu Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Leicheng Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Zhaoyang Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yuan Lu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Na Liu
- Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Guanyong Su
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Hongwen Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
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15
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Ding L, Zhang S, Zhu Y, Zhao N, Yan W, Li Y. Overlooked long-chain chlorinated paraffin (LCCP) contamination in foodstuff from China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 801:149775. [PMID: 34467914 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Data on long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs) is extremely sparse, despite their use and emission are increasing with the phasing out of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs). In this study, we analyzed chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in foodstuff samples (551 pooled samples, 93 items) divided into eight categories collected from Jinan, Shandong Province of China, by atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (APCI-qToF-MS), to investigate the occurrence, contamination patterns and homologue patterns of LCCPs in foodstuff commonly consumed in traditional Chinese diet. LCCP intake through diet was estimated as well. LCCPs were detected in all pooled samples with geometric mean (GM) concentrations ranging from 1.8 to 21.9 ng/g wet weight (ng/g ww), contributing to 9-28% of the total CP mass in the studied foodstuff categories. The contamination patterns of LCCPs differed from SCCPs and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs), as reflected by the patterns of mass distribution, and by the lack of correlations between LCCP and S/MCCP concentrations in various foodstuff categories. The homologue profiles of LCCPs were extremely complex and diverse, with frequent detection of C30-36Cl2-15 very-long-chain chlorinated paraffin (vLCCP) congeners. The homologue profiles of eggs stood out for their high abundance of C18-22Cl9-13 LCCP congeners. LCCPs contributed 6.0-25.2% (8.9% for median estimation) to the estimated dietary intake (EDI) for total CPs through diet based on estimations using different percentiles of CP concentrations. The median estimate of dietary LCCP intake for adults in Jinan was 287.9 ng/kg_bw/day, reaching ~10- to 100-fold of that in Sweden and Canada. Considering the continuing production, use and emission of LCCPs, as well as the similar toxicity effects induced by LCCPs as SCCPs and MCCPs, attention should be paid to the health risk posed by LCCPs, or all CPs as a class of contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Ding
- Environmental Research Institute, Shandong University, Binhai Road 72, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Shiwen Zhang
- Environmental Research Institute, Shandong University, Binhai Road 72, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yuting Zhu
- Environmental Research Institute, Shandong University, Binhai Road 72, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Nan Zhao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Binhai Road 72, Qingdao 266237, China.
| | - Wenbao Yan
- Environmental Monitoring Station of Lanshan Branch of Rizhao Ecological and Environment Bureau, Jiaodingshan Road 539, Rizhao 276800, China
| | - Yahui Li
- Jinan Ecological Environmental Protection Grid Supervision Center, Lvyou Road 17199, Jinan 250098, China
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