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Funato N, Heliövaara A, Boeckx C. A regulatory variant impacting TBX1 expression contributes to basicranial morphology in Homo sapiens. Am J Hum Genet 2024; 111:939-953. [PMID: 38608674 PMCID: PMC11080286 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2024.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Changes in gene regulatory elements play critical roles in human phenotypic divergence. However, identifying the base-pair changes responsible for the distinctive morphology of Homo sapiens remains challenging. Here, we report a noncoding single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs41298798, as a potential causal variant contributing to the morphology of the skull base and vertebral structures found in Homo sapiens. Screening for differentially regulated genes between Homo sapiens and extinct relatives revealed 13 candidate genes associated with basicranial development, with TBX1, implicated in DiGeorge syndrome, playing a pivotal role. Epigenetic markers and in silico analyses prioritized rs41298798 within a TBX1 intron for functional validation. CRISPR editing revealed that the 41-base-pair region surrounding rs41298798 modulates gene expression at 22q11.21. The derived allele of rs41298798 acts as an allele-specific enhancer mediated by E2F1, resulting in increased TBX1 expression levels compared to the ancestral allele. Tbx1-knockout mice exhibited skull base and vertebral abnormalities similar to those seen in DiGeorge syndrome. Phenotypic differences associated with TBX1 deficiency are observed between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis). In conclusion, the regulatory divergence of TBX1 contributes to the formation of skull base and vertebral structures found in Homo sapiens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Funato
- Department of Signal Gene Regulation, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Yushima 1-5-45, Bunkyo-ku 113-8510, Tokyo, Japan; Research Core, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Yushima 1-5-45, Bunkyo-ku 113-8510, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Arja Heliövaara
- Cleft Palate and Craniofacial Center, Department of Plastic Surgery, Helsinki University Hospital and Helsinki University, Stenbäckinkatu 11, P.O. Box 281, Helsinki FI-00029 HUS, Finland
| | - Cedric Boeckx
- Catalan Institute for Advanced Studies and Research (ICREA), Passeig de Lluís Companys, 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain; Section of General Linguistics, University of Barcelona, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes 585, 08007 Barcelona, Spain; University of Barcelona Institute for Complex Systems, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes 585, 08007 Barcelona, Spain; University of Barcelona Institute of Neurosciences, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes 585, 08007 Barcelona, Spain
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2
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Antón SC, Middleton ER. Making meaning from fragmentary fossils: Early Homo in the Early to early Middle Pleistocene. J Hum Evol 2023; 179:103307. [PMID: 37030994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 04/10/2023]
Abstract
In celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Journal of Human Evolution, we re-evaluate the fossil record for early Homo (principally Homo erectus, Homo habilis, and Homo rudolfensis) from early diversification and dispersal in the Early Pleistocene to the ultimate demise of H. erectus in the early Middle Pleistocene. The mid-1990s marked an important historical turning point in our understanding of early Homo with the redating of key H. erectus localities, the discovery of small H. erectus in Asia, and the recovery of an even earlier presence of early Homo in Africa. As such, we compare our understanding of early Homo before and after this time and discuss how the order of fossil discovery and a focus on anchor specimens has shaped, and in many ways biased, our interpretations of early Homo species and the fossils allocated to them. Fragmentary specimens may counter conventional wisdom but are often overlooked in broad narratives. We recognize at least three different cranial and two or three pelvic morphotypes of early Homo. Just one postcranial morph aligns with any certainty to a cranial species, highlighting the importance of explicitly identifying how we link specimens together and to species; we offer two ways of visualizing these connections. Chronologically and morphologically H. erectus is a member of early Homo, not a temporally more recent species necessarily evolved from either H. habilis or H. rudolfensis. Nonetheless, an ancestral-descendant notion of their evolution influences expectations around the anatomy of missing elements, especially the foot. Weak support for long-held notions of postcranial modernity in H. erectus raises the possibility of alternative drivers of dispersal. New observations suggest that the dearth of faces in later H. erectus may mask taxonomic diversity in Asia and suggest various later mid-Pleistocene populations could derive from either Asia or Africa. Future advances will rest on the development of nuanced ways to affiliate fossils, greater transparency of implicit assumptions, and attention to detailed life history information for comparative collections; all critical pursuits for future research given the great potential they have to enrich our evolutionary reconstructions for the next fifty years and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan C Antón
- Center for the Study of Human Origins, Department of Anthropology, New York University, NY, NY 10003, USA.
| | - Emily R Middleton
- Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA
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3
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Rib cage anatomy in Homo erectus suggests a recent evolutionary origin of modern human body shape. Nat Ecol Evol 2020; 4:1178-1187. [PMID: 32632258 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-020-1240-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The tall and narrow body shape of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved via changes in the thorax, pelvis and limbs. It is debated, however, whether these modifications first evolved together in African Homo erectus, or whether H. erectus had a more primitive body shape that was distinct from both the more ape-like Australopithecus species and H. sapiens. Here we present the first quantitative three-dimensional reconstruction of the thorax of the juvenile H. erectus skeleton, KNM-WT 15000, from Nariokotome, Kenya, along with its estimated adult rib cage, for comparison with H. sapiens and the Kebara 2 Neanderthal. Our three-dimensional reconstruction demonstrates a short, mediolaterally wide and anteroposteriorly deep thorax in KNM-WT 15000 that differs considerably from the much shallower thorax of H. sapiens, pointing to a recent evolutionary origin of fully modern human body shape. The large respiratory capacity of KNM-WT 15000 is compatible with the relatively stocky, more primitive, body shape of H. erectus.
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Rmoutilová R, Gómez‐Olivencia A, Brůžek J, Holliday T, Ledevin R, Couture‐Veschambre C, Madelaine S, Džupa V, Velemínská J, Maureille B. A case of marked bilateral asymmetry in the sacral alae of the Neandertal specimen Regourdou 1 (Périgord, France). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 171:242-259. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebeka Rmoutilová
- CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, MCC, UMR5199 PACEAUniversité de Bordeaux Pessac Cedex France
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of ScienceCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Asier Gómez‐Olivencia
- Departamento Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencia y TecnologíaUniversidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) Leioa Spain
- IKERBASQUE. Basque Foundation for Science Bilbao Spain
- Centro UCM‐ISCIII de Investigación sobre Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos Madrid Spain
| | - Jaroslav Brůžek
- CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, MCC, UMR5199 PACEAUniversité de Bordeaux Pessac Cedex France
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of ScienceCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Trenton Holliday
- Department of AnthropologyTulane University New Orleans Louisiana
- Evolutionary Studies InstituteUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg Republic of South Africa
| | - Ronan Ledevin
- CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, MCC, UMR5199 PACEAUniversité de Bordeaux Pessac Cedex France
| | | | - Stéphane Madelaine
- CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, MCC, UMR5199 PACEAUniversité de Bordeaux Pessac Cedex France
- Musée National de Préhistoire Les Eyzies‐de‐Tayac France
| | - Valér Džupa
- Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Third Faculty of MedicineCharles University, and University Hospital Královské Vinohrady Prague Czech Republic
| | - Jana Velemínská
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of ScienceCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Bruno Maureille
- CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, MCC, UMR5199 PACEAUniversité de Bordeaux Pessac Cedex France
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Morphology, pathology, and the vertebral posture of the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neandertal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:4923-4927. [PMID: 30804177 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1820745116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the early postural reconstructions of the Neandertals as incompletely erect were rejected half a century ago, recent studies of Neandertal vertebral remains have inferred a hypolordotic, flat lower back and spinal imbalance for them, including the La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 skeleton. These studies form part of a persistent trend to view the Neandertals as less "human" than ourselves despite growing evidence for little if any differences in basic functional anatomy and behavioral capabilities. We have therefore reassessed the spinal posture of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 using a new pelvic reconstruction to infer lumbar lordosis, interarticulation of lower lumbar (L4-S1) and cervical (C4-T2) vertebrae, and consideration of his widespread age-related osteoarthritis. La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 exhibits a pelvic incidence (and hence lumbar lordosis) similar to modern humans, articulation of lumbar and cervical vertebrae indicating pronounced lordosis, and Baastrup disease as a product of his advanced age, osteoarthritis, and lordosis. Our findings challenge the view of generally small spinal curvatures in Neandertals. Setting aside the developmentally abnormal Kebara 2 vertebral column, La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 is joined by other Neandertals with sufficient vertebral remains in providing them with a fully upright (and human) axial posture.
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6
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Case study: Scoliosis in a Bonobo (Pan paniscus
). J Med Primatol 2017; 47:114-116. [DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Been E, Gómez-Olivencia A, Shefi S, Soudack M, Bastir M, Barash A. Evolution of Spinopelvic Alignment in Hominins. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:900-911. [PMID: 28406567 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Spinopelvic alignment refers to the interaction between pelvic orientation, spinal curvatures, and the line of gravity. In a healthy modern human, this alignment is characterized by reciprocal curves/orientation of the sacrum, lumbar lordosis, thoracic kyphosis, and cervical lordosis. In an economic sagittal posture, these curvatures keep the line of gravity close to the center of the acetabulum. The purpose of this study is to explore the spinopelvic alignment in extinct hominins. We examined spinopelvic alignment of a single representative from each of the following hominin groups: Australopithecus, Homo erectus (H. erectus), H. neanderthalensis, and early H. sapiens. Pelvic incidence, lumbar lordosis, thoracic kyphosis, and cervical lordosis for each representative was estimated and compared with that of modern humans. Three basic spinopelvic alignments were found: (1) the sinusoidal alignment with moderate to high spinal curvatures and pelvic incidence found in H. erectus and H. sapiens; (2) the straight alignment with small spinal curvatures and small pelvic incidence found in Neandertal lineage hominins; (3) the compound alignment found in Australopithecus, with moderate pelvic incidence and lumbar lordosis, and nearly straight cervical spine. Our results indicate that balanced upright posture can be achieved in different alignments. Each hominin group solved the requirements of erect posture in a slightly different way. Moreover, we propose the term "cranio-spino-pelvic balance" to substitute "spino-pelvic balance." From an evolutionary perspective, not only changes in the pelvis have conditioned the evolution of the spinal curvatures but also changes in the equilibrium of the head likely also affected this balance. Anat Rec, 300:900-911, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella Been
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Professions, Ono Academic College, Israel.,Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Asier Gómez-Olivencia
- Departamento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV-EHU, Apdo. 644, Bilbao, 48080, Spain.,IKERBASQUE. Basque Foundation for Science, Basque.,Centro UCM-ISCIII de Investigación sobre Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos, Avda. Monforte de Lemos 5 (Pabellón 14), Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Sara Shefi
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Professions, Ono Academic College, Israel
| | - Michalle Soudack
- Pediatric Imaging, Edmond and Lily Safra Children's Hospital, Tel Hashomer, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel.,Department of Diagnostic Imaging, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Markus Bastir
- Paleoanthropology Group, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Spain
| | - Alon Barash
- Faculty of Medicine in the Galilee, Bar Ilan University, Zefat, Israel
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Kessler SE, Bonnell TR, Byrne RW, Chapman CA. Selection to outsmart the germs: The evolution of disease recognition and social cognition. J Hum Evol 2017. [PMID: 28622934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of providing care to diseased conspecifics must have been a turning point during the evolution of hominin sociality. On a population level, care may have minimized the costs of socially transmitted diseases at a time of increasing social complexity, although individual care-givers probably incurred increased transmission risks. We propose that care-giving likely originated within kin networks, where the costs may have been balanced by fitness increases obtained through caring for ill kin. We test a novel hypothesis of hominin cognitive evolution in which disease may have selected for the cognitive ability to recognize when a conspecific is infected. Because diseases may produce symptoms that are likely detectable via the perceptual-cognitive pathways integral to social cognition, we suggest that disease recognition and social cognition may have evolved together. Using agent-based modeling, we test 1) under what conditions disease can select for increasing disease recognition and care-giving among kin, 2) whether providing care produces greater selection for cognition than an avoidance strategy, and 3) whether care-giving alters the progression of the disease through the population. The greatest selection was produced by diseases with lower risks to the care-giver and prevalences low enough not to disrupt the kin networks. When care-giving and avoidance strategies were compared, only care-giving reduced the severity of the disease outbreaks and subsequent population crashes. The greatest selection for increased cognitive abilities occurred early in the model runs when the outbreaks and population crashes were most severe. Therefore, over the course of human evolution, repeated introductions of novel diseases into naïve populations could have produced sustained selection for increased disease recognition and care-giving behavior, leading to the evolution of increased cognition, social complexity, and, eventually, medical care in humans. Finally, we lay out predictions derived from our disease recognition hypothesis that we encourage paleoanthropologists, bioarchaeologists, primatologists, and paleogeneticists to test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon E Kessler
- Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Canada; Durham University, Department of Anthropology, UK.
| | | | - Richard W Byrne
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, UK
| | - Colin A Chapman
- Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Canada; Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, USA
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9
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Tardieu C, Hasegawa K, Haeusler M. How Did the Pelvis and Vertebral Column Become a Functional Unit during the Transition from Occasional to Permanent Bipedalism? Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:912-931. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Tardieu
- UMR 7179 “Mécanismes adaptatifs: des organismes aux communautés”, USM 301-Département E.G.B; Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Paris France
| | | | - Martin Haeusler
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zürich; Zürich Switzerland
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10
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Gómez-Olivencia A, Arlegi M, Barash A, Stock JT, Been E. The Neandertal vertebral column 2: The lumbar spine. J Hum Evol 2017; 106:84-101. [PMID: 28434542 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Revised: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Here we provide the most extensive metric and morphological analysis performed to date on the Neandertal lumbar spine. Neandertal lumbar vertebrae show differences from modern humans in both the vertebral body and in the neural arch, although not all Neandertal lumbar vertebrae differ from modern humans in the same way. Differences in the vertebral foramen are restricted to the lowermost lumbar vertebrae (L4 and L5), differences in the orientation of the upper articular facets appear in the uppermost lumbar vertebrae (probably in L1 and L2-L3), and differences in the horizontal angle of the transverse process appear in L2-L4. Neandertals, when compared to modern humans, show a smaller degree of lumbar lordosis. Based on a still limited fossil sample, early hominins (australopiths and Homo erectus) had a lumbar lordosis that was similar to but below the mean of modern humans. Here, we hypothesize that from this ancestral degree of lumbar lordosis, the Neandertal lineage decreased their lumbar lordosis and Homo sapiens slightly increased theirs. From a postural point of view, the lower degree of lordosis is related to a more vertical position of the sacrum, which is also positioned more ventrally with respect to the dorsal end of the pelvis. This results in a spino-pelvic alignment that, though different from modern humans, maintained an economic postural equilibrium. Some features, such as a lower degree of lumbar lordosis, were already present in the middle Pleistocene populations ancestral to Neandertals. However, these middle Pleistocene populations do not show the full suite of Neandertal lumbar morphologies, which probably means that the characteristic features of the Neandertal lumbar spine did not arise all at once.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asier Gómez-Olivencia
- Dept. Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV-EHU. Apdo. 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain; IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Spain; Équipe de Paléontologie Humaine, UMR 7194, CNRS, Département de Préhistoire, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Musée de l'Homme, 17, Place du Trocadéro, 75016 Paris, France; Centro UCM-ISCIII de Investigación sobre Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos, Avda. Monforte de Lemos 5 (Pabellón 14), 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Mikel Arlegi
- Dept. Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV-EHU. Apdo. 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Alon Barash
- Faculty of Medicine in the Galilee, Bar Ilan University, Zefat 1311502, Israel
| | - Jay T Stock
- PAVE Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3DZ, UK
| | - Ella Been
- Physical Therapy Department, Faculty of Health Professions, Ono Academic College, Kiryat Ono 5545173, Israel; Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, 39040 Tel Aviv, Israel
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11
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Rühli FJ, Galassi FM, Haeusler M. Palaeopathology: Current challenges and medical impact. Clin Anat 2016; 29:816-22. [PMID: 26940256 DOI: 10.1002/ca.22709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Palaeopathology is the science which studies ancient human diseases. Throughout its relatively young history it underwent tremendous technological and methodological improvements (from pure morphology and histology to CT scanning) that have constantly reshaped its scientific rationale. Among other achievements, the study of mummies and fossilized hominids has allowed to effectively extract ancient DNA, prove the existence of atherosclerosis in ancient times, demonstrate the presence of disease vectors, better clarify the etiology of infectious diseases otherwise only postulated on the basis of ancient accounts as well as to show the presence of spine pathology in our hominid ancestors. The research levels in this discipline are three: basic research, individual cases, population. The first and the third levels contribute most to the discipline, while the second is the one more appealing to the general public on account of its description of important cases reports. In addition, a recently introduced sub-specialty of palaeopathology, pathography is aiming to use an interdisciplinary approach to find traces of diseases in ancient literary sources and artistic representations. In spite of its discoveries, palaeopathology is not always viewed positively by clinicians because certain old-fashioned techniques are still due to technical restrictions. The authors provide a set of suggestions on how to strengthen the scientific recognition of this subject and explain at length how it could contribute to the progress of medical research. Clin. Anat. 29:816-822, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank J Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine (IEM), University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Francesco M Galassi
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine (IEM), University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Haeusler
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine (IEM), University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich, Switzerland.,Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich, Switzerland
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12
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Meyer MR, Haeusler M. Spinal cord evolution in early Homo. J Hum Evol 2015; 88:43-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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13
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How much more would KNM-WT 15000 have grown? J Hum Evol 2015; 80:74-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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