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d'Errico F, van Niekerk KL, Geis L, Henshilwood CS. New Blombos Cave evidence supports a multistep evolutionary scenario for the culturalization of the human body. J Hum Evol 2023; 184:103438. [PMID: 37742522 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of technologies to culturally modify the appearance of the human body is a debated issue, with earliest evidence consisting of perforated marine shells dated between 140 and 60 ka at archaeological sites from Africa and western Asia. In this study, we submit unpublished marine and estuarine gastropods from Blombos Cave Middle Stone Age layers to taxonomic, taphonomic, technological, and use-wear analyses. We show that unperforated and naturally perforated eye-catching shells belonging to the species Semicassis zeylanica, Conus tinianus, and another Conus species, possibly Conus algoensis, were brought to the cave between 100 and 73 ka. At ca. 70 ka, a previously unrecorded marine gastropod, belonging to the species Tritia ovulata, was perforated by pecking and was worn as an ornamental object, isolated or in association with numerous intentionally perforated shells of the species Nassarius kraussianus. Fluctuations in sea level and consequent variations in the site-to-shoreline distances and landscape modifications during the Middle Stone Age have affected the availability of marine shells involved in symbolic practices. During the M3 and M2 Lower phases, with a sea level 50 m lower, the site was approximately 3.5 km away from the coast. In the later M2 Upper and M1 phases, with a sea level at -60 m, the distance increased to about 5.7 km. By the end of the M1 phase, when the site was abandoned, Blombos Cave was situated 18-30 km from the shoreline. We use the new Blombos evidence and a review of the latest findings from Africa and Eurasia to propose a testable ten-step evolutionary scenario for the culturalization of the human body with roots in the deep past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco d'Errico
- Univ. Bordeaux, UMR CNRS 5199, Bâtiment B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023, F-33615, Pessac Cedex, France; SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Karen Loise van Niekerk
- SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Lila Geis
- Univ. Bordeaux, UMR CNRS 5199, Bâtiment B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023, F-33615, Pessac Cedex, France
| | - Christopher Stuart Henshilwood
- SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, 2050, South Africa
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Doyon L, Faure T, Sanz M, Daura J, Cassard L, d’Errico F. A 39,600-year-old leather punch board from Canyars, Gavà, Spain. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg0834. [PMID: 37043572 PMCID: PMC10096582 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg0834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Puncture alignments are found on Palaeolithic carvings, pendants, and other fully shaped osseous artifacts. These marks were interpreted as abstract decorations, system of notations, and features present on human and animal depictions. Here, we create an experimental framework for the analysis and interpretation of human-made punctures and apply it to a highly intriguing, punctured bone fragment found at Canyars, an Early Upper Palaeolithic coastal site from Catalonia, Spain. Changes of tool and variation in the arrangement and orientation of punctures are consistent with the interpretation of this object as the earliest-known leather work punch board recording six episodes of hide pricking, one of which was to produce a linear seam. Our results indicate that Aurignacian hunters-gatherers used this technology to produce leather works and probably tailored clothes well before the introduction of bone eyed needles in Europe 15,000 years later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Doyon
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Bât. B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS50023, Pessac 33600, France
- Shandong University, Institute of Cultural Heritage, Jimo-Binhai Highway 72, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Thomas Faure
- Institut Polytechnique de Bordeaux, École Nationale Supérieure de Cognitique, 109 avenue Raoul, Talence Cedex 33405, France
| | - Montserrat Sanz
- Universitat de Barcelona, Grup de Recerca del Quaternari (GRQ-SERP), C/Montalegre 6-8, Barcelona 08001, Spain
| | - Joan Daura
- Universitat de Barcelona, Grup de Recerca del Quaternari (GRQ-SERP), C/Montalegre 6-8, Barcelona 08001, Spain
| | - Laura Cassard
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Bât. B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS50023, Pessac 33600, France
| | - Francesco d’Errico
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Bât. B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS50023, Pessac 33600, France
- University of Bergen, SFF Center for Early Sapiens Behavior (SapienCE), Øysteinsgate 3, Posboks 7805, Bergen 5020, Norway
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Wang Y, Zhang X, Sun X, Yi S, Min K, Liu D, Yan W, Cai H, Wang X, Curnoe D, Lu H. A new chronological framework for Chuandong Cave and its implications for the appearance of modern humans in southern China. J Hum Evol 2023; 178:103344. [PMID: 36947893 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
Chuandong Cave is an important Late Paleolithic site because it documents the early appearance of bone tools in southern China. We used the single-aliquot regenerative-dose protocol for optically stimulated luminescence dating to improve the precision of the chronology for the Chuandong Cave sedimentary sequence. The age of each layer was determined using a Bayesian modeling approach which combined optically stimulated luminescence ages with published AMS 14C dates. The results showed that Layer 10 began accumulating since 56 ± 14 ka and provides the upper age limit for all artifacts from the sequence. Bone awl tools from Layer 8, the earliest grinding bone tools in this site, were recovered within sediments between 40 ± 7 ka and 30 ± 4 ka. Layer 8 also indicates the appearance of modern humans in the Chuandong Cave sequence. Layers 4-2, ranging from 15 ± 3 ka until 11 ± 1 ka and including the Younger Dryas period, contain a few bone awls and an eyed bone needle. The shift from bone awls to eyed bone needles in the Chuandong Cave sequence indicates that modern humans adapted to the changing climate of southern China. We conclude that modern human behavior in bone tools appeared in southern China as early as 40 ± 7 ka, became more sophisticated during the Last Glacial Maximum, and spread more widely across southern China during the Younger Dryas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Wang
- School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Xinglong Zhang
- Guizhou Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Guiyang 550003, China
| | - Xuefeng Sun
- School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Shuangwen Yi
- School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Kai Min
- Guizhou Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Guiyang 550003, China
| | - Dengke Liu
- School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Wenxuan Yan
- School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Huiyang Cai
- Guizhou Provincial Museum, Guiyang 550081, China
| | - Xinjin Wang
- Guizhou Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Guiyang 550003, China
| | - Darren Curnoe
- Australia Museum Research Institute, 1 William Street, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Huayu Lu
- School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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Domestic spaces as crucibles of Paleolithic culture: An archaeological perspective. J Hum Evol 2022; 172:103266. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Changes in limiting factors for forager population dynamics in Europe across the last glacial-interglacial transition. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5140. [PMID: 36068206 PMCID: PMC9448755 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32750-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Population dynamics set the framework for human genetic and cultural evolution. For foragers, demographic and environmental changes correlate strongly, although the causal relations between different environmental variables and human responses through time and space likely varied. Building on the notion of limiting factors, namely that at any one time, the scarcest resource caps population size, we present a statistical approach to identify the dominant climatic constraints for hunter-gatherer population densities and then hindcast their changing dynamics in Europe for the period between 21,000 to 8000 years ago. Limiting factors shifted from temperature-related variables (effective temperature) during the Pleistocene to a regional mosaic of limiting factors in the Holocene dominated by temperature seasonality and annual precipitation. This spatiotemporal variation suggests that hunter-gatherers needed to overcome very different adaptive challenges in different parts of Europe and that these challenges varied over time. The signatures of these changing adaptations may be visible archaeologically. In addition, the spatial disaggregation of limiting factors from the Pleistocene to the Holocene coincided with and may partly explain the diversification of the cultural geography at this time. Here, the authors use climate and resource availability, to statistically model the limiting factors in the dynamics of hunter-gatherer population densities in Europe between 21,000 and 8,000 years ago. They find that limiting factors varied spatiotemporally and the effects of these may be visible in the archaeological record.
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d'Errico F, Pitarch Martí A, Wei Y, Gao X, Vanhaeren M, Doyon L. Zhoukoudian Upper Cave personal ornaments and ochre: Rediscovery and reevaluation. J Hum Evol 2021; 161:103088. [PMID: 34837740 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Personal ornaments have become a key cultural proxy to investigate cognitive evolution, modern human dispersal, and population dynamics. Here, we reassess personal ornaments found at Zhoukoudian Upper Cave and compare them with those from other Late Paleolithic Northern Chinese sites. We reappraise the information provided by Pei Wen Chung on Upper Cave personal ornaments lost during World War II and analyze casts of 17 of them, along with two unpublished objects displayed at the Zhoukoudian Site Museum and three original perforated teeth rediscovered at the Zhoukoudian Site Museum. We apply archeozoological, technological and use-wear analyses to document variation in ornamental practices and their change throughout the site stratigraphy. Badger, fox, red deer, sika deer, marten, and tiger teeth as well as carp bone, bird bone, Anadara shell, limestone beads, and perforated pebble appear to have been the preferred objects used as ornaments by Upper Cave visitors. Multivariate analysis of technological data highlights a correspondence between cultural layers and perforation techniques, with radial incising being typical of layer L2 and bidirectional incising of L4. The three rediscovered badger canines display features suggesting they were sewed on clothing rather than suspended from necklaces or bracelets. Elemental scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectromety and mineralogical (μ-Raman) analyses of red residues adhering to the rediscovered teeth indicate these objects were originally coated with ochre and identify variations that match differences in technology. The two ornaments exhibited at the Zhoukoudian Site Museum are ancient teeth that were recently perforated and should be excluded from the Upper Cave assemblage. A seriation of Late Paleolithic ornaments found at Northern Chinese sites identifies a clear-cut difference in preferred ornament types between western and eastern sites, interpreted as reflecting two long-lasting traditions in garment symbolic codes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco d'Errico
- CNRS UMR5199 PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, CEDEX, France; SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Africa Pitarch Martí
- CNRS UMR5199 PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, CEDEX, France; Departament d'Arts I Conservació-Restauració, Facultat de Belles Arts, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yi Wei
- Centre for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment (CAS), Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Scientific Research, Beijing Museum of Natural History, Beijing, China
| | - Xing Gao
- Centre for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment (CAS), Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Marian Vanhaeren
- CNRS UMR5199 PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, CEDEX, France
| | - Luc Doyon
- CNRS UMR5199 PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, CEDEX, France; Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
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Disguises and the Origins of Clothing. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2021; 32:706-728. [PMID: 34643886 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-021-09415-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Thermoregulation is often thought to be a key motivating factor behind the origins of clothing. Less attention has been given, however, to the production and use of clothing across traditional societies in contexts outside of thermoregulatory needs. Here I investigate the use of disguises, modesty coverings, and body armor among the 10 hunter-gatherer societies in the Probability Sample Files (PSF) within the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) World Cultures database, with a particular focus on disguise cases and how they compare with strategies of deception across other taxa. The employment of disguises-defined as altering one's appearance for purposes of deceiving conspecifics or other animals-is noted for eight of the 10 societies, with their use occurring in contexts of hunting, religious or cult practices, and war or interpersonal violence. Most hunter-gatherer disguises demonstrated clear similarities to cases of visual deception found in other species, with the majority of examples fitting categories of animal mimicry, masquerading as plants, disruptive coloration (camouflage), or background matching (camouflage), while disguises unique to humans involved the impersonation of culture-specific "spirit-beings." Clothing for modesty purposes (nine societies) and body armor (six societies) are also noted. I propose that strategic initiatives by individuals or groups to disguise or conceal themselves represents one possible initial pathway to the cultural evolution of clothing. There are likely multiple potential (nonexclusive) social and functional pathways to the emergence of clothing outside of thermoregulatory needs.
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Doyon L, Li Z, Wang H, Geis L, d’Errico F. A 115,000-year-old expedient bone technology at Lingjing, Henan, China. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0250156. [PMID: 33956805 PMCID: PMC8101957 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Activities attested since at least 2.6 Myr, such as stone knapping, marrow extraction, and woodworking may have allowed early hominins to recognize the technological potential of discarded skeletal remains and equipped them with a transferable skillset fit for the marginal modification and utilization of bone flakes. Identifying precisely when and where expedient bone tools were used in prehistory nonetheless remains a challenging task owing to the multiple natural and anthropogenic processes that can mimic deliberately knapped bones. Here, we compare a large sample of the faunal remains from Lingjing, a 115 ka-old site from China which has yielded important hominin remains and rich faunal and lithic assemblages, with bone fragments produced by experimentally fracturing Equus caballus long bones. Our results provide a set of qualitative and quantitative criteria that can help zooarchaeologists and bone technologists distinguish faunal remains with intentional flake removal scars from those resulting from carcass processing activities. Experimental data shows marrow extraction seldom generates diaphyseal fragments bearing more than six flake scars arranged contiguously or in interspersed series. Long bone fragments presenting such characteristics can, therefore, be interpreted as being purposefully knapped to be used as expediency tools. The identification, based on the above experimental criteria, of 56 bone tools in the Lingjing faunal assemblage is consistent with the smaller size of the lithics found in the same layer. The continuity gradient observed in the size of lithics and knapped bones suggests the latter were used for tasks in which the former were less or not effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Doyon
- Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- CNRS UMR5199 –PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Zhanyang Li
- Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hua Wang
- Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lila Geis
- CNRS UMR5199 –PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, France
| | - Francesco d’Errico
- CNRS UMR5199 –PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, France
- SSF Centre for Early Sapiens Behavior (SapienCe), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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On holes and strings: Earliest displays of human adornment in the Middle Palaeolithic. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234924. [PMID: 32640002 PMCID: PMC7343129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycymeris shell beads found in Middle Palaeolithic sites are understood to be artifacts collected by modern humans for symbolic use. In Misliya Cave, Israel, dated to 240–160 ka BP, Glycymeris shells were found that were neither perforated nor manipulated; nevertheless, transportation to the cave is regarded as symbolic. In about 120 ka BP at Qafzeh Cave, Israel, modern humans collected naturally perforated Glycymeris shells also for symbolic use. Use-wear analyses backed by experiments demonstrate that the Qafzeh shells were suspended on string, thus suggesting that the collection of perforated shells was intentional. The older Misliya shells join a similar finding from South Africa, while the later-dated perforated shells from Qafzeh resemble other assemblages from North Africa and the Levant, also dated to about 120 ka BP. We conclude that between 160 ka BP and 120 ka BP there was a shift from collecting complete valves to perforated ones, which reflects both the desire and the technological ability to suspend shell beads on string to be displayed on the human body.
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Pitarch Martí A, d’Errico F, Turq A, Lebraud E, Discamps E, Gravina B. Provenance, modification and use of manganese-rich rocks at Le Moustier (Dordogne, France). PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218568. [PMID: 31314755 PMCID: PMC6636720 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of colouring materials by Neanderthals has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Here we present a taphonomic, technological, chemical-mineralogical and functional analysis of fifty-four manganese rich lumps recovered during past and on-going excavations at the lower rockshelter of Le Moustier (Dordogne, France). We compare compositional data for archaeological specimens with the same information for twelve potential geological sources. Morphometric analysis shows that material from Peyrony’s excavations before the First World War provides a highly biased picture of the importance of these materials for Mousterian groups. These early excavations almost exclusively recovered large modified pieces, while Mn-rich lumps from the on-going excavations predominantly consist of small pieces, only half of which bear traces of modification. We estimate that at least 168 pieces were not recovered during early work at the site. Neanderthals developed a dedicated technology for processing Mn-rich fragments, which involved a variety of tools and motions. Processing techniques were adapted to the size and density of the raw material, and evidence exists for the successive or alternating use of different techniques. Morphological, textural and chemical differences between geological and archaeological samples suggest that Neanderthals did not collect Mn-rich lumps at the outcrops we sampled. The association and variability in Mn, Ni, As, Ba content, compared to that observed at the sampled outcrops, suggests that either the Le Moustier lumps come from a unique source with a broad variation in composition, associating Mn, Ni, As, Ba, or that they were collected at different sources, characterized either by Mn-Ni-As or Mn-Ba. In the latter case, changes in raw material composition across the stratigraphy support the idea that Neanderthal populations bearing different stone tool technologies collected Mn fragments from different outcrops. Our results favour a use of these materials for multiple utilitarian and symbolic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Africa Pitarch Martí
- UMR 5199 CNRS, De la Préhistoire à l’Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie (PACEA), Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France
- Seminari d'Estudis i Recerques Prehistòriques (SERP), Facultat de Geografia i Història, Departament d'Història i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Montalegre, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Francesco d’Errico
- UMR 5199 CNRS, De la Préhistoire à l’Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie (PACEA), Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France
- SSF Centre for Early Sapiens Behavior (SapienCe), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Alain Turq
- UMR 5199 CNRS, De la Préhistoire à l’Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie (PACEA), Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France
- Musée de Préhistoire, Sauveterre-la-Lémance, Lot-et-Garonne, France
| | - Eric Lebraud
- UMR 5026 CNRS, Institut de Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Bordeaux (ICMCB), Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France
| | - Emmanuel Discamps
- UMR 5608 CNRS, Travaux et Recherches Archéologiques sur les Espaces, les Cultures et les Sociétés (TRACES), Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès Maison de la Recherche, Toulouse, France
| | - Brad Gravina
- UMR 5199 CNRS, De la Préhistoire à l’Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie (PACEA), Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France
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An Updated Theoretical Framework for Human Sexual Selection: from Ecology, Genetics, and Life History to Extended Phenotypes. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-018-0103-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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