Factors affecting outcome of triceps motor branch transfer for isolated axillary nerve injury

Neurotization of the axillary nerve using a motor branch of the triceps brachii: Outcomes after a 3-to-15-year follow-up

PURPOSE

Axillary nerve neurotization using a motor branch of the triceps brachii has become a therapeutic option in the management of deltoid paralysis. The purpose of this study was to report the medium to long-term outcomes of this procedure.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty patients with a median age of 31 years (interquartile range - IQR, 29-53) were included in a single-operator retrospective study. A clinical evaluation was conducted, including the assessment of deltoid muscle strength using the British Medical Research Council grading system and a dynamometer with comparisons made between preoperative and postoperative outcomes.

RESULTS

The median follow-up period was 6 years (IQR, 5-11). At last follow-up, the median active abduction was 160° (IQR 60-160), and 85% of patients recovered at least M3 abduction force. No donor site deficits were identified.

DISCUSSION

The medium to long-term outcomes of the neurotization of a triceps brachii motor branch on the axillary nerve are comparable to the short-term outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

The terrible triad of the shoulder: injury characteristics and outcomes of axillary nerve reconstruction

We aimed to describe outcomes, including shoulder motion, deltoid strength and Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand scores, in 19 patients with terrible triad shoulder injuries (anterior shoulder dislocation, rotator cuff tear or greater tuberosity fracture, and axillary nerve injury) who required axillary nerve reconstruction. The type of nerve surgery (grafting vs. nerve transfer), demographic factors and injury characteristics were not significantly associated with outcomes. The mean postoperative abduction and Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand score were 95° and 28, respectively. Patients with rotator cuff tears had a higher Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand score (more disability) than those with isolated greater tuberosity fractures. We conclude that spontaneous recovery of the axillary nerve may not occur in patients with a terrible triad injury. Functional outcomes after axillary nerve repair are poor with respect to motion, strength and patient-reported outcomes compared with reported results for axillary nerve reconstruction in the absence of rotator cuff injury.Level of evidence: IV.

Injury and Biological Factors Impact Shoulder Function following Autogenous Grafting of Spinal Nerves for Pan-Brachial Plexus Reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Shoulder function after spinal nerve grafting in pan-brachial plexus injuries (pan-BPI) is not well described. The authors evaluated shoulder abduction (ABD) and external rotation (ER) after spinal nerve grafting to the suprascapular nerve, axillary nerve, or posterior division of the upper trunk and determined patient characteristics, injury severity and characteristics, and nerve graft factors that influenced outcomes.

METHODS

A total of 362 patients undergoing pan-BPI reconstruction and spinal nerve grafting for shoulder reanimation in a single institution between 2001 and 2018 were reviewed. Patient demographics, Injury Severity Score (ISS), graft characteristics, strength, range of motion for shoulder ABD and ER, and patient-reported outcomes were recorded. Patients were divided into 3 groups based on recovery of shoulder function: no return, ABD only, and ABD and ER.

RESULTS

A total of 110 patients underwent spinal nerve grafting, with 41 meeting inclusion criteria. Seventeen (41.5%) had no return of shoulder function, 14 (34.1%) had ABD alone, and 10 (24.4%) had ABD and ER. Patients with recovery of both ABD and ER were significantly younger (18.6 ± 5.56 years), had lower body mass index (22.4 ± 4.0), and had a lower ISS (10.5 ± 6.24; P = 0.003). Multivariable analysis found that with increasing age (OR, 0.786; 95% CI, 0.576, 0.941) and ISS (OR, 0.820; 95% CI, 0.606, 0.979), odds for return of ABD and ER decreased significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

In pan-BPI, 24.4% of patients demonstrated return of both ABD and ER after spinal nerve grafting to suprascapular nerve and either axillary nerve or posterior division of the upper trunk. Age, body mass index, and ISS were associated with poorer recovery of shoulder function. Careful patient selection and consideration of age, body mass index, and ISS may improve outcomes of spinal nerve grafting for shoulder reanimation.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Risk, III.

Anatomy of Profunda Brachial Artery in the Axilla and Its Relationship With the Radial Nerve: Fresh-Cadaver Anatomical Study and Clinical Observations

PURPOSE

Dissection of the radial nerve in the axilla and upper portion of and posterior aspect of arm may be necessary for brachial plexus reconstruction, in axillary nerve paralysis, and in radial nerve injuries. The radial nerve is in intimate contact with the profunda brachial artery (PBA). The authors sought to describe the relationship of the PBA with the radial nerve.

METHODS

We dissected the PBA and the radial nerve bilaterally in 20 upper limbs from 10 fresh cadavers after subclavian artery injection with green latex. We studied the relationship of the PBA with the radial nerve, its branching patterns, and its diameters. In addition, we performed surgery on 5 patients with brachial plexus, radial, or axillary nerve injury in whom we dissected the PBA.

RESULTS

The PBA was present in all dissections, originating from the brachial artery (n = 19 specimens) close to the latissimus dorsi tendon or from the subscapular artery (n = 1 specimen). In 15 dissections, the PBA bifurcated into an anterior (AB) and a posterior (PB) branch. In one dissection, the AB was absent. The AB traveled toward the triceps medial head. The PB flanked the radial nerve posteriorly and traveled around the humerus, with the radial nerve passing between the medial and the lateral head of the triceps. The AB and PB were longer than the PBA and measured on average 53 mm (SD ± 33 mm) and 39 mm (SD ± 26 mm), respectively. Intraoperatively, the radial nerve could be exposed in the upper arm by pulling the triceps medial head anteriorly together with the AB. The PB was lateral to the radial nerve in the posterior arm approach.

CONCLUSIONS

In the upper arm, the radial nerve was not flanked by a single branch as postulated in anatomical textbooks but by 2 branches resulting from the bifurcation of the PBA.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Awareness of PBA anatomy is essential during radial nerve dissection from the anterior or posterior arm approach.

Surgery for mononeuropathies

Advancement in microsurgical techniques and innovative approaches including greater use of nerve and tendon transfers have resulted in better peripheral nerve injury (PNI) surgical outcomes. Clinical evaluation of the patient and their injury factors along with a shift toward earlier time frame for intervention remain key. A better understanding of the pathophysiology and biology involved in PNI and specifically mononeuropathies along with advances in ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging allow us, nowadays, to provide our patients with a logical and sophisticated approach. While functional outcomes are constantly being refined through different surgical techniques, basic scientific concepts are being advanced and translated to clinical practice on a continuous basis. Finally, a combination of nerve transfers and technological advances in nerve/brain and machine interfaces are expanding the scope of nerve surgery to help patients with amputations, spinal cord, and brain lesions.

A Surgical Framework for the Management of Incomplete Axillary Nerve Injuries

BACKGROUND

 Axillary nerve injury is the most common nerve injury affecting shoulder function. Nerve repair, grafting, and/or end-to-end nerve transfers are used to reconstruct complete neurotmetic axillary nerve injuries. While many incomplete axillary nerve injuries self-resolve, axonotmetic injuries are unpredictable, and incomplete recovery occurs. Similarly, recovery may be further inhibited by superimposed compression neuropathy at the quadrangular space. The current framework for managing incomplete axillary injuries typically does not include surgery.

METHODS

 This study is a retrospective analysis of 23 consecutive patients with incomplete axillary nerve palsy who underwent quadrangular space decompression with additional selective medial triceps to axillary end-to-side nerve transfers in 7 patients between 2015 and 2019. Primary outcome variables included the proportion of patients with shoulder abduction M3 or greater as measured on the Medical Research Council (MRC) scale, and shoulder pain measured on a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Secondary outcome variables included pre- and postoperative Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand Questionnaire (DASH) scores.

RESULTS

 A total of 23 patients met the inclusion criteria and underwent nerve surgery a mean 10.7 months after injury. Nineteen (83%) patients achieved MRC grade 3 shoulder abduction or greater after intervention, compared with only 4 (17%) patients preoperatively (p = 0.001). There was a significant decrease in VAS shoulder pain scores of 4.2 ± 2.5 preoperatively to 1.9 ± 2.4 postoperatively (p < 0.001). The DASH scores also decreased significantly from 48.8 ± 19.0 preoperatively to 30.7 ± 20.4 postoperatively (p < 0.001). Total follow-up was 17.3 ± 4.3 months.

CONCLUSION

 A surgical framework is presented for the appropriate diagnosis and surgical management of incomplete axillary nerve injury. Quadrangular space decompression with or without selective medial triceps to axillary end-to-side nerve transfers is associated with improvement in shoulder abduction strength, pain, and DASH scores in patients with incomplete axillary nerve palsy.

Factors Affecting C5 Viability and Demographic Variability in Two Brachial Plexus Centers

Complete brachial plexus injuries are devastating injuries. A viable C5 spinal nerve can offer additional sources of axons and alter surgical treatment. We aimed to determine factors that portend C5 nerve root avulsion.

Methods

A retrospective study of 200 consecutive patients with complete brachial plexus injuries at two international centers (Mayo Clinic in the United States and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan) was performed. Demographic information, concomitant injuries, mechanism, and details of the injury were determined, and kinetic energy (KE) and Injury Severity Score were calculated. C5 nerve root was evaluated by preoperative imaging, intraoperative exploration, and/or intraoperative neuromonitoring. A spinal nerve was considered viable if it was grafted during surgery.

Results

Complete five-nerve root avulsions of the brachial plexus were present in 62% of US and 43% of Taiwanese patients, which was significantly different. Increasing age, the time from injury to surgery, weight, body mass index of patient, motor vehicle accident, KE, Injury Severity Score, and presence of vascular injury significantly increased the risk of C5 avulsion. Motorcycle (≤150cc) or bicycle accident decreased the risk of avulsion. Significant differences were found between demographic variables between the two institutions: age of injury, body mass index, time to surgery, vehicle type, speed of injury, KE, Injury Severity Score, and presence of vascular injury.

Conclusions

The rate of complete avulsion injury was high in both centers. Although there are a number of demographic differences between the United States and Taiwan, overall the KE of the accident increased the risk of C5 avulsion.

Nerve Transfers for Brachial Plexus Reconstruction in Patients over 60 Years

Negative expectations regarding nerve reconstruction in the elderly prevail in the literature, but little is known about the effectiveness of nerve transfers in patients with brachial plexus injuries aged over 60 years. We present a series of five patients (1 female, 4 male) aged between 60 and 81 years (median 62.0 years) who underwent nerve reconstruction using multiple nerve transfers in brachial plexopathies. The etiology of brachial plexus injury was trauma (n = 2), or iatrogenic, secondary to spinal surgical laminectomy, tumor excision and radiation for breast cancer (n = 3). All but one patient underwent a one-stage reconstruction including neurolysis and extra-anatomical nerve transfer alone (n = 2) or combined with anatomical reconstruction by sural nerve grafts (n = 2). One patient underwent a two-stage reconstruction, which involved a first stage anatomical brachial plexus reconstruction followed by a second stage nerve transfer. Neurotizations were performed as double (n = 3), triple (n = 1) or quadruple (n = 1) nerve or fascicular transfers. Overall, at least one year postoperatively, successful results, characterized by a muscle strength of M3 or more, were restored in all cases, two patients even achieving M4 grading in the elbow flexion. This patient series challenges the widely held dogma that brachial plexus reconstruction in older patients will produce poor outcomes. Distal nerve transfers are advantageous as they shorten the reinnervation distance. Healthy, more elderly patients should be judiciously offered the whole spectrum of reconstructive methods and postoperative rehabilitation concepts to regain useful arm and hand function and thus preserve independence after a traumatic or nontraumatic brachial plexus injury.

Iatrogenic Nerve Injuries of the Upper Extremity: A Critical Analysis Review

»

Iatrogenic nerve injuries may occur after any intervention of the upper extremity.

»

Causes of iatrogenic nerve lesions include direct sharp or thermal injury, retraction, compression from implants or compartment syndrome, injection, patient positioning, radiation, and cast/splint application, among others.

»

Optimal treatment of iatrogenic peripheral nerve lesions relies on early and accurate diagnosis.

»

Advanced imaging modalities (e.g., ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging) and electrodiagnostic studies aid and assist in preoperative planning.

»

Optimal treatment of iatrogenic injuries is situation-dependent and depends on the feasibility of direct repair, grafting, and functional transfers.

Elevated Body Mass Index Negatively Impacts Recovery of Shoulder Abduction Strength in Triceps Motor Branch to Axillary Nerve Transfers

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this work was to evaluate the clinical outcomes of triceps motor branch to axillary nerve transfers and to identify prognostic factors which may influence these outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort included all patients who underwent a triceps motor branch to axillary nerve transfer (2010-2019) with at least 12 months of follow-up. The primary outcome measure was shoulder abduction strength assessed with British Medical Research Council (MRC) grade.

RESULTS

Ten patients were included with a mean follow-up of 19.1 (SD 5.9) months. Compared with preoperative MRC shoulder abduction strength (0.2 SD 0.4), patients significantly improved postoperatively (2.8 SD 1.6; P = .005). Increased body mass index (BMI) was significantly associated with worse postoperative MRC (P = .014).

CONCLUSION

Triceps motor branch to axillary nerve transfer is a beneficial procedure for restoring shoulder function in patients presenting with either isolated axillary nerve or brachial plexus pathology. Patients with elevated BMI may not have as robust strength recovery and should be counseled carefully regarding prognosis.

A multidisciplinary approach to the management of brachial plexus injuries: experience from the Mayo Clinic over 100 years

A multidisciplinary brachial plexus clinic has been a relatively new concept, offering different surgical speciality perspectives on the treatment of brachial plexus injuries. The resulting collaborative effort has proven to be greater than the sum of its parts. In this review, the history, philosophy of care, development/implementation and impact of a creation of a multidisciplinary brachial plexus team at the Mayo Clinic are detailed.

Age correlation in upper brachial plexus injury patients undergoing nerve transfer surgeries

•A patient's age can be a critical factor influencing the outcome following upper brachial plexus injury (BPI) reconstruction.•The favorable factor being younger patients with short denervation period.•In older patients early and more aggressive management for an optimal outcome.•This study supports the various correlation of age with the outcomes of upper brachial plexus reconstruction surgery.

Factors Associated with Poorer Outcomes from Triceps Motor Branch to Anterior Axillary Nerve Transfer: A Case-Control Study

INTRODUCTION

We sought to identify predictors of failed triceps motor branch transfer to the anterior division of the axillary nerve (AN) for shoulder abduction reconstruction after a brachial plexus injury (BPI).

METHODS

A case-control study of adult AN or brachial plexus patients treated with a triceps motor branch transfer to the anterior division of the AN with a minimum 18 months of follow-up was performed. The failure group (case group) was defined as modified British Medical Research Council muscle scale (mBMRC) postoperative deltoid grade ≤2 and was compared to the successful outcome group (control group), defined as mBMRC postoperative deltoid grade ≥3. Clinical variables, injury mechanism, time from injury to surgery, root avulsion status, electrodiagnostic studies, rotator cuff injuries, scapula fracture, Disabilities of the Arm Shoulder and Hand scores, and preoperative triceps strength were analyzed. Subgroup analysis was performed for patients with isolated AN injuries and those with BPI.

RESULTS

A total of 69 patients met inclusion/exclusion criteria, of whom 23 regained ≥M3 deltoid muscle strength and 52° ± 69° of shoulder abduction (successful outcome group) and 46 regained ≤M2 deltoid muscle strength and 27° ± 30° of shoulder abduction (failure group). Preoperative triceps weakness (M ≤4) was significantly more common in the failure group (63% vs. 30%, P = 0.032); preoperative triceps muscle fibrillations were significantly more common in the failure group (61% vs. 30%, P = 0.02). Isolated AN injuries presented better preoperative motion and postoperative outcomes results compared to BPI.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of triceps motor branch associated with fibrillations or weakness resulted in statistically poorer outcomes compared to the use of a normal triceps motor branch in the restoration of anterior AN function after nerve transfer.

Morbidity of long head of the triceps motor branch neurotization to the axillary nerve: Retrospective subjective and objective assessment of triceps brachii strength after transfer

INTRODUCTION

Morbidity is considered to be negligible in Leechavengvongs transfer (LT) of the long head of the triceps onto the axillary nerve, but the assessment methods used may lack reproducibility. We assessed triceps strength after LT objectively by the isokinetic technique, addressing the following questions: Is strength lowered after LT compared to the healthy limb? And 2) is there a good correlation between isokinetic dynamometry and subjective assessment?

HYPOTHESIS

Isokinetic measurement shows a decrease in triceps strength at peak torque after LT compared to the healthy limb, and this morbidity is underestimated on subjective assessment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This single-center retrospective study included patients undergoing LT for axillary nerve trunk palsy between 2008 and 2020, with M5 triceps preoperatively on the British Medical Research Council (BMRC) scale. Twenty patients, with a mean age of 25±9years (range, 15-48years) were assessed at a mean 58±47months (range, 6-174months). Elbow extension strength was assessed on a standardized questionnaire, BMRC isometric test and isokinetic test on an angular course of 90° at 60°/sec and 180°/sec concentrically and 30°/sec excentrically.

RESULTS

Strength at 60°/sec and 180°/sec concentrically and 30°/sec excentrically was significantly lower than in the healthy limb: respectively, -17Nm, -15Nm, and -16Nm, (p<0.001) for a mean -23%. Loss of strength was mainly severe on isokinetic testing and mild on isometric testing. Seven patients reported contracture (35%), 12 fatigue (60%), and 3 weakness (15%). Satisfaction with extension strength was excellent or good for respectively 12 (60%) and 8 patients (40%). Triceps strength was graded BMRC M4 in 9 triceps (11%) and M5 in 11 (55%).

DISCUSSION

After LT, isokinetic measurement found generally severe loss of triceps strength, but without subjective impact on everyday life.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV; retrospective study.

Outcome Analysis of Medial Triceps Motor Nerve Transfer to Axillary Nerve in Isolated and Brachial Plexus-Associated Axillary Nerve Palsy

BACKGROUND

Since 2007, the authors have performed the triceps-to-axillary nerve transfer using the medial triceps branch to reconstruct axillary nerve function in brachial plexus and isolated axillary nerve palsies.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was undertaken of patients reconstructed with this transfer, recording patient and injury demographics and time to surgery. Preoperative and postoperative function was graded using the Medical Research Council scale and the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire.

RESULTS

Postoperatively, 31 patients (64.6 percent) reached Medical Research Council grade 3 or higher at final follow-up. The median Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand score was 59.9 (interquartile range, 38.8 to 70.5) preoperatively and 25.0 (interquartile range, 11.3 to 61.4) at final follow-up. Sixteen patients (33 percent) had isolated axillary nerve injury; the median Medical Research Council grade was 4.25 (interquartile range, 3 to 4.25), with 14 patients (87.6 percent) achieving grade 3 or higher. Thirty-two patients (77 percent) had brachial plexus-associated injury; median Medical Research Council grade was 3 (interquartile range, 2 to 3), with 17 patients (53.1 percent) achieving grade 3 or higher.

CONCLUSION

Medial triceps nerve branch is a strong donor for triceps-to-axillary nerve transfer; however, injury factors may limit the motor recovery in this complex patient population, particularly in axillary nerve palsy associated with brachial plexus injury.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, IV.

Triceps and cutaneous radial nerve branches investigated via an axillary anterior arm approach: new findings in a fresh-cadaver anatomical study

OBJECTIVE

The authors sought to describe the anatomy of the radial nerve and its branches when exposed through an axillary anterior arm approach.

METHODS

Bilateral upper limbs of 10 fresh cadavers were dissected after dyed latex was injected into the axillary artery.

RESULTS

Via the anterior arm approach, all triceps muscle heads could be dissected and individualized. The radial nerve overlaid the latissimus dorsi tendon, bounded by the axillar artery on its superior surface, then passed around the humerus, together with the lower lateral arm and posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve, between the lateral and medial heads of the triceps. No triceps motor branch accompanied the radial nerve's trajectory. Over the latissimus dorsi tendon, an antero-inferior bundle, containing all radial nerve branches to the triceps, was consistently observed. In the majority of the dissections, a single branch to the long head and dual innervations for the lateral and medial heads were observed. The triceps long and proximal lateral head branches entered the triceps muscle close to the latissimus dorsi tendon. The second branch to the lateral head stemmed from the triceps lower head motor branch. The triceps medial head was innervated by the upper medial head motor branch, which followed the ulnar nerve to enter the medial head on its anterior surface. The distal branch to the triceps medial head also originated near the distal border of the latissimus dorsi tendon. After a short trajectory, a branch went out that penetrated the medial head on its posterior surface. The triceps lower medial head motor branch ended in the anconeus muscle, after traveling inside the triceps medial head. The lower lateral arm and posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve followed the radial nerve within the torsion canal. The lower lateral brachial cutaneous nerve innervated the skin over the biceps, while the posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve innervated the skin over the lateral epicondyle and posterior surface of the forearm. The average numbers of myelinated fibers were 926 in the long and 439 in the upper lateral head and 658 in the upper and 1137 in the lower medial head motor branches.

CONCLUSIONS

The new understanding of radial nerve anatomy delineated in this study should aid surgeons during reconstructive surgery to treat upper-limb paralysis.

The Intercostal Nerves Transfer to the Radial Nerve Branch to the Long Head Triceps Muscle: Influencing Factor and Outcome of 55 Cases

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to report the functional outcomes and factors affecting the result of intercostal nerves transfer to the radial nerve branch to the long head triceps muscle for restoration of elbow extension in patients with total brachial plexus palsy or C5 to C7 palsy with the loss of triceps muscle function.

METHODS

Fifty-five patients with total brachial plexus palsy or C5 to C7 palsy with no triceps muscle function had a reconstruction of elbow extension by transferring the third to fifth intercostal nerves to the radial nerve branch to the long head triceps muscle. The functional outcomes determined by the Medical Research Council grading were evaluated. Factors influencing the outcomes were determined using logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

At the follow-up of at least 2 years, 36 patients (65%) had antigravity motor function (Medical Research Council grade, ≥3). Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that the body mass index, time to surgery, and injury of the dominant limb were associated with the outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

The third to fifth intercostal nerves transfer to the radial nerve branch to the long head triceps muscle is an effective procedure to restore elbow extension. We would recommend using 3 intercostal nerves without grafts; in cases of nerve root avulsion in which there is no chance of spontaneous recovery, early surgery should be considered.

TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic IV.

Defining the Reliability of Deltoid Reanimation by Nerve Transfer When Using Abnormal but Variably Recovered Triceps Donor Nerves

Upper brachial plexus injuries to the C5/6 roots or axillary nerve can result in severe deficits in upper limb function. Current techniques to reinnervate the deltoid muscle utilise the well-described transfer of radial nerve branches to triceps to the axillary nerve. However, in around 25% of patients, there is a failure of sufficient deltoid reinnervation. It is unclear in the literature if deltoid reanimation should be attempted with a nerve transfer from a weak but functioning triceps nerve. The authors present the largest series of triceps to axillary nerve transfers for deltoid reanimation in order to answer this clinical question. Seventy-seven consecutive patients of a single surgeon were stratified and analysed in four groups: (1) normal triceps at presentation, (2) abnormal triceps at presentation recovering to clinically normal function preoperatively, (3) abnormal triceps at presentation remaining abnormal preoperatively, and lastly (4) where pre-operative triceps function was deemed insufficient for use, requiring alternative reconstruction for deltoid reanimation. The authors considered deltoid re-animation of ≥ M4 as successful for the purpose of this study. Median Medical Research Council (MRC) values demonstrate group 1 achieves this successfully (M5), while median values for groups 2-4 result in M4 power (albeit with decreasing interquartile ranges). Median post-operative shoulder abduction active range of motion (AROM) values were represented by 170° (85-180) in group 1, 117.5° (97.5-140) in group 2, 90° (35-150) in group 3, and 60° (40-155) in group 4. For both post-operative assessments, subgroup analyses demonstrated statistically significant differences when comparing group 1 with groups 3 and 4 (p < 0.05), while all the other group to group pairwise comparisons did not reach significance. The authors postulated that triceps deficiency can act as a surrogate marker of a more extensive plexus injury and may predict poorer outcomes if the weakness persists representing the trending differences between groups 2 and 3. However, given no statistical differences were demonstrated between groups 3 and 4, the authors conclude that utilising an abnormal triceps nerve that demonstrates sufficient strength and redundancy intraoperatively is preferable to alternative transfers for deltoid reanimation. Lastly, in group 4 patients where triceps nerves are damaged and unusable for nerve transfer, alternative operations can also achieve sufficient outcomes and should be considered for restoration of shoulder abduction.

Prevention and Treatment of Nerve Injuries in Shoulder Arthroplasty

➤

Nerve injuries during shoulder arthroplasty have traditionally been considered rare events, but recent electrodiagnostic studies have shown that intraoperative nerve trauma is relatively common.

➤

The brachial plexus and axillary and suprascapular nerves are the most commonly injured neurologic structures, with the radial and musculocutaneous nerves being less common sites of injury.

➤

Specific measures taken during the surgical approach, component implantation, and revision surgery may help to prevent direct nerve injury. Intraoperative positioning maneuvers and arm lengthening warrant consideration to minimize indirect injuries.

➤

Suspected nerve injuries should be investigated with electromyography preferably at 6 weeks and no later than 3 months postoperatively, allowing for primary reconstruction within 3 to 6 months of injury when indicated. Primary reconstructive options include neurolysis, direct nerve repair, nerve grafting, and nerve transfers.

➤

Secondary reconstruction is preferred for injuries presenting >12 months after surgery. Secondary reconstructive options with favorable outcomes include tendon transfers and free functioning muscle transfers.

Transfer of Motor Fascicle From the Median to the Axillary Nerve for Upper Brachial Plexus Injury: A Surgical Technique and Case Report

Upper brachial plexus injury or isolated lesions of the axillary nerve (AN) compromise shoulder functionality significantly. Different surgical techniques have been described for selective reconstruction of the AN, with good results especially in association with repair of the suprascapular nerve. The objective of this study is to describe the transfer of motor fascicles of the median nerve to the AN by an axillary approach in cadavers and the clinical results in 2 patients. Dissections were performed on 5 cadavers, followed by identification and dissection of the AN and its divisions before entering the quadrangular space. We standardized the surgical technique in which the median nerve was first identified and then an intrafascicular dissection was performed. Then we harvested a fascicle and transferred it to the anterolateral branch of the AN. Two patients underwent an operation; at 2 years of follow-up, average abduction of 125 degrees and external rotation of 95 degrees were observed. In conclusion, the transfer of motor fascicles of the median nerve to the AN by an axillary approach could be an alternative technique for the deltoid reinnervation in upper brachial plexus injury. Some advantages are the proximity of the donor nerve to the receptor nerve and the low morbidity of the target muscles of the donor nerve. Studies with a larger number of patients are required to establish its effectiveness compared with other techniques already described.

Impact of Body Mass Index and Comorbidities on Outcomes in Upper Extremity Nerve Transfers

BACKGROUND

 There is a paucity of research investigating the impact of patient comorbidities, such as obesity and smoking, on nerve transfer outcomes. The objective of this retrospective cohort study was to evaluate the impact of body mass index (BMI) and comorbidities on the clinical outcomes of upper extremity nerve transfers.

METHODS

 A retrospective cohort study was executed. Patients were eligible for inclusion if they had an upper extremity nerve transfer with a minimum of 12-months follow-up. Data was collected regarding demographics, comorbidities, injury etiology, nerve transfer, as well as preoperative and postoperative clinical assessments. The primary outcome measure was strength of the recipient nerve innervated musculature. Statistical analysis used the Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and Spearman's rho.

RESULTS

 Thirty-eight patients undergoing 43 nerve transfers were eligible for inclusion. Patients had a mean age of 48.8 years and a mean BMI of 27.4 kg/m² (range:19.7-39.0). Injuries involved the brachial plexus (32%) or its terminal branches (68%) with the most common etiologies including trauma (50%) and compression (26%). Anterior interosseous nerve to ulnar motor nerve (35%) was the most common transfer performed. With a mean follow-up of 20.1 months, increased BMI (p = 0.036) and smoking (p = 0.021) were associated with worse postoperative strength.

CONCLUSION

 This retrospective cohort study demonstrated that increased BMI and smoking may be associated with worse outcomes in upper extremity nerve transfers-review of the literature yields ambiguity in both regards. To facilitate appropriate patient selection and guide expectations regarding prognosis, further experimental and clinical work is warranted.

Roles of preoperative and early postoperative electrodiagnosis in brachial plexus injury patients undergoing nerve transfer operations: retrospective feasibility study

Objective

The purpose of this retrospective observational study was to assess the feasibility of electrodiagnostic parameters, perioperatively, and to discover optimal values as prognostic factors for patients with brachial plexus injury undergoing nerve transfer operations.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 11 patients who underwent nerve transfer surgery. The patients underwent perioperative electrodiagnosis (EDX) before and approximately 6 months after surgery. We evaluated the compound muscle action potential (CMAP) ratio, motor unit recruitment, and their interval changes. To evaluate motor strength, we used the Medical Research Council (MRC) grade, 6 and 12 months after surgery. We evaluated the relationships between improved CMAP ratio, and motor unit recruitment and MRC grade changes 6 and 12 months postoperatively.

Results

All parameters increased significantly after surgery. The CMAP ratio improvement 6 months after surgery correlated with the MRC grade change from baseline to 12 months, with a correlation coefficient of 0.813.

Conclusion

EDX parameters improved significantly postoperatively, and the CMAP ratio improvement 6 months after surgery correlated with the clinical outcomes at 1 year. The results of perioperative EDX might help establish long-term treatment plans for patients who undergo nerve transfer surgery.

Outcomes of Microneurolysis of Hourglass Constrictions in Chronic Neuralgic Amyotrophy

PURPOSE

Wide variability in the recovery of patients affected by neuralgic amyotrophy (NA) is recognized, with up to 30% experiencing residual motor deficits. Using magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound (US), we identified hourglass constrictions (HGCs) in all affected nerves of patients with chronic motor paralysis from NA. We hypothesized that chronic NA patients undergoing microsurgical epineurolysis and perineurolysis of constrictions would experience greater recovery compared with patients managed nonsurgically.

METHODS

We treated 24 patients with chronic motor palsy from NA and HGCs identified on magnetic resonance imaging and US either with microsurgical epineurolysis and perineurolysis of HGCs (11 of 24) or nonsurgically (13 of 24). Muscle strength (both groups) and electrodiagnostic testing (EDX) (operative group) was performed before and after surgery. Preoperative EDX confirmed muscle denervation in the distribution of affected nerve(s). All patients met criteria for microneurolysis: 12 months without improvement since onset or failure of clinical and EDX improvement after 6 months documented by 3 successive examinations, each at least 6 weeks apart.

RESULTS

Mean time from onset to surgery was 12.5 ± 4.0 months. Average time to most recent post-onset follow-up occurred at 27.3 months (range, 18-42 months; 15 nerves). Average time to latest follow-up among nonsurgical patients was 33.6 months (range, 18-108 months; 16 nerves). Constrictions involved individual fascicular groups (FCs) of the median nerve and the suprascapular, axillary and radial nerves proper (HGCs). Nine of 11 operative patients experienced clinical recovery compared with 3 of 13 nonsurgical patients. EMG revealed significant motor unit recovery from axonal regeneration in the operative group.

CONCLUSIONS

Microsurgical epineurolysis and perineurolysis of FCs and HGCs was associated with significantly improved clinical and nerve regeneration at an average follow-up of 14.8 months compared with nonsurgical management. We recommend microneurolysis of HGCs and FCs as a treatment option for patients with chronic NA who have failed to improve with nonsurgical treatment.

TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic IV.

Nerve transfers in the upper extremity: A review

Injury of the brachial plexus and peripheral nerve often result in significant upper extremity dysfunction and disability. Nerve transfers are replacing other techniques as the gold standard for brachial plexus and other proximal peripheral nerve injuries. These transfers require an intimate knowledge of nerve topography, a technically demanding Intraneural dissection and require extensive physical therapy for retraining. In this review, we present a summary of the most widely accepted nerve transfers in the upper extremity described in the current literature.

Neurotization of isolated axillary nerve palsy in a teenage patient

•

Isolated axillary nerve palsy is a very rare condition, resulting most often from shoulder dislocation, motor vehicle accidents or iatrogenic injury.

•

Loss of shoulder sensibility and abduction are the mean symptoms. And Electromyography (EMG) test helps to confirm the diagnoses.

•

Long head triceps branch transfer to the axillary nerve is a good surgical procedure.

•

Favorable results are associated with young age, early intervention time and adequate rehabilitation.

Background and aim

The aim of this article was to study isolated axillary nerve injury, his etiologies, symptomatology and treatment via nerve transfer or neurotization.

Methods

We describe the procedure of long head triceps radial branch transfer to the axillary nerve motor branch in adolescent patient with right deltoid muscle palsy and shoulder anesthesia following a motorcycle crush six months ago.

Results

Total recovery of the shoulder sensibility, abduction and extension at one-year follow-up, and patient returned progressively to his normal live and sports activities without any functional effect on the donor muscle.

Conclusion

The advantages of the axillary nerve transfer are demonstrated through many publications. It is a good therapeutic option if it concerned a young patient and practiced at early time followed by adequate rehabilitation.

Radial to Axillary Nerve Transfer Outcomes in Shoulder Abduction: A Systematic Review

Background

Brachial plexus and axillary nerve injuries often result in paralysis of the deltoid muscle. This can be functionally debilitating for patients and have a negative impact on their activities of daily living. In these settings, transferring the branch of the radial nerve innervating the triceps to the axillary nerve is a viable treatment option. Additional nerve transfers may be warranted. This study sought to determine the efficacy of nerve transfer procedures in the setting of brachial plexus and axillary nerve injuries and factors affecting clinical outcomes.

Methods

The U.S. National Library of Medicine's website "PubMed" was queried for "radial to axillary nerve transfer" and "brachial plexus nerve transfer." An initial review by two authors was performed to identify relevant articles followed by a third author validation utilizing inclusion and exclusion criteria. Individual patient outcomes were recorded and pooled for final analysis.

Results

Of the 80 patients, 66 (82.5%) had clinical improvement after surgical nerve transfer procedures. Significant difference in clinical improvement following nerve transfer procedures was correlated with patient age, mechanism of injury, brachial plexus vs isolated axillary nerve injuries, multiple nerve transfers vs single nerve transfers, and surgery within the first 7 months of injury. The branch of the radial nerve supplying the triceps long head showed improved clinical results compared with the branch of the radial nerve supplying the triceps medial head and anconeus.

Conclusion

Nerve transfers have been shown to be effective in restoring shoulder abduction in both isolated axillary nerve injuries and brachial plexus injuries.

Isolated Axillary Nerve Rupture due to Closed Nondislocating Injury of the Shoulder in Contact Sports: A Report of 2 Cases

CASE

Axillary nerve rupture without shoulder joint fracture or dislocation in contact sports is very rare. To date, there has been no detailed report on such cases. We present 2 rare cases of axillary nerve rupture in contact sports who were successfully treated with free nerve grafting.

CONCLUSION

In contact sports, the deltoid muscle is sometimes paralyzed temporarily after a collision. However, similar to our cases, the axillary nerve can be lacerated without fracture or dislocation. It is necessary to watch the course of paralysis carefully and consider nerve reconstruction if it does not recover.

Obesity status is a risk factor for secondary surgery after neurolysis, direct nerve repair or nerve grafting in traumatic brachial plexus injury: a retrospective cohort study

Background

The objective of the study was to investigate the association between obesity and the presence of secondary surgery following neurolysis, direct nerve repair, or nerve grafting in patients with traumatic brachial plexus injury.

Methods

In this retrospective chart review spanning two Level I medical centers in a single metropolitan area, 57 patients who underwent neurolysis, direct nerve repair, or nerve grafting for brachial plexus injuries between 2002 and 2015 were identified. Risk regression analysis was used to evaluate the association between obesity status and secondary surgery.

Results

After controlling for the confounding variables of age, high energy injury, associated shoulder dislocation and associated clavicle fracture using multivariate regression (risk regression), the risk ratio of secondary surgery in obese patients compared to non-obese patients was 6.99 (P = 0.028). The most common secondary surgery was tendon or local muscle transfer.

Conclusions

There is an increased risk of secondary surgery in obese patients compared to non-obese patients of the same age and with the same severity of injury. The increased risk may be due to challenges related to powering a heavier upper extremity. A weight reduction program might be considered as part of the preoperative strategy.

Traumatic Brachial Plexopathy in Athletes: Current Concepts for Diagnosis and Management of Stingers

Traumatic upper trunk brachial plexopathy, also known as a stinger or burner, is the most common upper extremity neurologic injury among athletes and most commonly involves the upper trunk. Recent studies have shown the incidence of both acute and recurrent injuries to be higher in patients with certain anatomic changes in the cervical spine. In addition, despite modern awareness, tackling techniques, and protective equipment, some think the incidence to be slowly on the rise in contact athletes. The severity of neurologic injury varies widely but usually does not result in significant loss of playing time or permanent neurologic deficits if appropriate management is undertaken. Timely diagnosis allows implementation of means to minimize the risk of recurrent injury. It is important for treating physicians to understand the pathogenesis, evaluation, and acute and long-term management of stingers to improve recovery and minimize chronic sequela.

Isolated Axillary Nerve Injury in an Elite High School American Football Player: A Case Report

An elite high school American football athlete sustained a traumatic, isolated, axillary nerve injury. Axillary nerve injuries are uncommon, but serious injuries in American football. With the advent of nerve transfers and grafts, these injuries, if diagnosed in a timely manner, are treatable. This case report discusses the multidisciplinary approach necessary for the diagnosis and treatment of an elite high school American football player who presented with marked deltoid atrophy. The athlete's injury was diagnosed via electrodiagnostic testing and he underwent a medial triceps nerve to axillary nerve transfer. After appropriate postsurgical therapy, the athlete was able to return to American football the subsequent season and continue performing at an elite level. This case report reviews the evaluation and modern treatment for axillary nerve injuries in the athlete, including nerve transfers, nerve grafts, and return to play.

Radial-to-Axillary Nerve Transfer Resolves Symptoms of Axillary Nerve Injury Due to Proximal Humerus Fracture-Dislocation in an Elderly Patient Treated With Hemiarthroplasty

Proximal humerus fractures in elderly patients are a common injury that can often be treated nonoperatively. However, surgery is indicated with some fracture patterns. Arthroplasty is an attractive option with poor bone quality, when there is a low likelihood of success with open reduction and internal fixation, and due to a timely return to function and weight bearing of the extremity in this patient population. A prerequisite for shoulder function for both native and replacement joints is a functional deltoid. Unfortunately, elderly patients with complex fracture patterns can sustain axillary nerve palsies that make management more difficult. The authors present a case of an elderly patient with a complex fracture-dislocation of the proximal humerus with traumatic axillary nerve palsy treated with hemiarthroplasty, followed by radial-to-axillary nerve transfer after the deltoid failed to improve. Congruency of the joint was restored and significant improvement in objective scoring metrics was achieved, making nerve transfer in this clinical scenario a viable option. [Orthopedics. 2019; 42(4):e395-e398.].

Elbow flexion reconstruction with nerve transfer or grafting in patients with brachial plexus injuries: A systematic review and comparison study

INTRODUCTION

Posttraumatic brachial plexus (BP) palsy was used to be treated by reconstruction with nerve grafts. For the last two decades, nerve transfers have gained popularity and believed to be more effective than nerve grafting. The aim of this systematic review was to compare elbow flexion restoration with nerve transfers or nerve grafting after traumatic BP injury.

METHODS

PRISMA-IPD structure was used for 52 studies included. Patients were allocated as C5-C6 (n = 285), C5-C6-C7 (n = 150), and total BP injury (n = 245) groups. In each group, two treatment modalities were compared, and effects of age and preoperative interval were analyzed.

RESULTS

In C5-C6 injuries, 93.1% of nerve transfer patients achieved elbow flexion force ≥M3, which was significantly better when compared to 69.2% of nerve graft patients (p < 0.001). For improved outcomes of nerve transfer patients, shorter preoperative interval was a significant factor in all injury patterns (p < 0.001 for C5-C6 injuries and total BP injuries, p = 0.018 for C5-C6-C7 injuries), and young age was a significant factor in total BP injury pattern (p = 0.022).

CONCLUSIONS

Our analyses showed that nerve transfers appear superior to nerve graftings especially in patients with a C5-C6 injury. Unnecessary delays in surgery must be prevented, and younger patients may have more chance for better recovery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

Nerve transfers for peripheral nerve injury in the upper limb: a case-based review

Nerve transfer has become a common and often effective reconstructive strategy for proximal and complex peripheral nerve injuries of the upper limb. This case-based discussion explores the principles and potential benefits of nerve transfer surgery and offers in-depth discussion of several established and valuable techniques including: motor transfer for elbow flexion after musculocutaneous nerve injury, deltoid reanimation for axillary nerve palsy, intrinsic re-innervation following proximal ulnar nerve repair, and critical sensory recovery despite non-reconstructable median nerve lesions.

Correlation of compound muscle action potential generated by donor nerves with the recovery of elbow flexion in Oberlin transfer in brachial plexus injury

Objective:

To study the correlation of compound muscle action potential of donor nerves with the recovery of elbow flexion in Oberlin transfer in brachial plexus injury.

Introduction:

Distal nerve transfer using motor fascicle of ulnar or median nerve to restore elbow flexion is a part of reconstructive surgery after upper brachial plexus injury, first described by Oberlin et al. However, one of the most critical influences on functional outcome is number of functioning motor axons in donor fascicle which is reflected by its compound muscle action potential. We studied whether nerve transfers with donor nerves showing higher amplitudes will yield better reinnervation of muscle and therefore better function as estimated by clinical examination.

Methods:

We prospectively studied 30 cases of upper brachial plexus injury, of which were treated with Oberlin transfer using ulnar or median or both nerves. The prerequisites were no elbow flexion and hand and wrist flexors showing the power of more than Medical research Council MRC Grade 4. Donor nerves selected either ulnar or median having CMAP >4 mv in our electrophysiology laboratory during nerve conduction study. Patients were followed up for 1 year and assessed clinically for restoration of elbow flexion, weight tolerance.

Results:

A total of 30 patients of Oberlin transfer were evaluated for improvement power of biceps and elbow flexion. (MRC) grading was done at 1 year. Twenty-seven patients had a good result (MRC grade ≥3), i.e., 90% of patients. Based on the MRC grades, we categorised the patients into two groups as follows: Group A and Group B. Group A included patients with MRC Grade 4–5 and Group B included Grades 3–3.5. We tried to establish a correlation between CMAP and MRC scores by comparison of MRC grade patients for their pre CMAPs which revealed a statistically significant higher CMAPs between the groups. (Mann–Whitney U-test, P = 0.028). This indicates the association of higher pre-CMAPs with higher MRC grades.

Conclusion:

We conclude that higher the compound muscle action potential of donor nerves, better the recovery of elbow flexion in Oberlin transfer in brachial plexus injury.

Outcomes of shoulder abduction after nerve surgery in patients over 50 years following traumatic brachial plexus injury

PURPOSE

There is controversy regarding the effectiveness of brachial plexus reconstruction in older patients, as outcomes are thought to be poor. The aim of this study is to determine the outcomes of shoulder abduction obtained after nerve reconstruction in patients over the age of 50 years and factors related to success.

METHODS

Forty patients over the age of 50 years underwent nerve surgery to improve shoulder function after a traumatic brachial plexus injury. Patients were evaluated pre- and postoperatively for shoulder abduction strength and range of motion (ROM); Disability of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) scores; pain; age bracket; gender; body mass index (BMI); delay from injury to operation; concomitant trauma; severity of trauma; and type of reconstruction.

RESULTS

The average age was 58.2 years (range 50-77 years) with an average follow-up of 18.8 months. The average modified British Medical Research Council (BMRC) shoulder abduction grade improved significantly from 0.23 to 2.03 (p < 0.005). Fourteen patients achieved functional shoulder abduction of ≥ M3 postoperatively. There was no correlation between age or age range stratification and BMRC grade or those obtaining useful shoulder abduction ≥ M3. Active shoulder abduction improved significantly from 18.25° to 40.64°, with no difference on the basis of age or age stratification. There were improved modified BMRC grades with nerve transfers versus nerve grafts. Less patients achieved ≥ M3 function if surgery was delayed > 6 months. The mean DASH score decreased from 45.3 to 40.7 postoperatively, and the average pain score decreased from 3.7 to 3.0. Patients with a higher postoperative BMRC grade for shoulder abduction had improved postoperative DASH scores and VAS for pain (p = 0.011 and 0.005, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Brachial plexus nerve reconstruction for shoulder abduction in patients over the age of 50 years can yield useful BMRC scores and ROM, and age should not be used to exclude nerve reconstruction in these patients.

Spinal accessory nerve to triceps muscle transfer using long autologous nerve grafts for recovery of elbow extension in traumatic brachial plexus injuries

OBJECTIVE

Reconstructive options for brachial plexus lesions continue to expand and improve. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and quality of restored elbow extension in patients with brachial plexus injuries who underwent transfer of the spinal accessory nerve to the motor branch of the radial nerve to the long head of the triceps muscle with an intervening autologous nerve graft and to identify patient and injury factors that influence functional triceps outcome.

METHODS

A total of 42 patients were included in this retrospective review. All patients underwent transfer of the spinal accessory nerve to the motor branch of the radial nerve to the long head of the triceps muscle as part of their reconstruction plan after brachial plexus injury. The primary outcome was elbow extension strength according to the modified Medical Research Council muscle grading scale, and signs of triceps muscle recovery were recorded using electromyography.

RESULTS

When evaluating the entire study population (follow-up range 12–45 months, mean 24.3 months), 52.4% of patients achieved meaningful recovery. More specifically, 45.2% reached Grade 0 or 1 recovery, 19.1% obtained Grade 2, and 35.7% improved to Grade 3 or better. The presence of a vascular injury impaired functional outcome. In the subgroup with a minimum follow-up of 20 months (n = 26), meaningful recovery was obtained by 69.5%. In this subgroup, 7.7% had no recovery (Grade 0), 19.2% had recovery to Grade 1, and 23.1% had recovery to Grade 2. Grade 3 or better was reached by 50% of patients, of whom 34.5% obtained Grade 4 elbow extension.

CONCLUSIONS

Transfer of the spinal accessory nerve to the radial nerve branch to the long head of the triceps muscle with an interposition nerve graft is an adequate option for restoration of elbow extension, despite the relatively long time required for reinnervation. The presence of vascular injury impairs functional recovery of the triceps muscle, and the use of shorter nerve grafts is recommended when and if possible.

Recovery of Elbow Flexion after Nerve Reconstruction versus Free Functional Muscle Transfer for Late, Traumatic Brachial Plexus Palsy: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

In late presentation of brachial plexus trauma, it is unclear whether donor nerves should be devoted to nerve reconstruction or reserved for free functional muscle transfer. The authors systematically reviewed recovery of elbow flexion after nerve reconstruction versus free functional muscle transfer for late, traumatic brachial plexus palsy.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed using the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases to identify all cases of traumatic brachial plexus palsy in patients aged 18 years or older. Patients who underwent late (≥12 months) nerve reconstruction or free functional muscle transfer for elbow flexion were included. Age, time to operation, and level of brachial plexus injury were recorded. British Medical Research Council grade for strength and range of motion were evaluated for elbow flexion.

RESULTS

Thirty-three studies met criteria, for a total of 103 patients (nerve reconstruction, n = 53; free functional muscle transfer, n = 50). There were no differences across groups regarding surgical age (time from injury) and preoperative elbow flexion. For upper trunk injuries, 53 percent of reconstruction patients versus 100 percent of muscle transfer patients achieved grade M3 or greater strength, and 43 percent of reconstruction patients versus 70 percent of muscle transfer patients achieved grade M4 or greater strength. Of the total brachial plexus injuries, 37 percent of reconstruction patients versus 78 percent of muscle transfer patients achieved grade M3 or greater strength, and 16 percent of reconstruction patients versus 46 percent of muscle transfer patients achieved grades M4 or greater strength.

CONCLUSION

In late presentation of traumatic brachial plexus injuries, donor nerves should be reserved for free functional muscle transfer to restore elbow flexion.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, IV.

Axillary nerve injury associated with glenohumeral dislocation: A review and algorithm for management

Axillary nerve injury is a well-recognized complication of glenohumeral dislocation. It is often a low-grade injury which progresses to full recovery without intervention. There is, however, a small number of patients who have received a higher-grade injury and are less likely to achieve a functional recovery without surgical exploration and reconstruction.

Following a review of the literature and consideration of local practice in a regional peripheral nerve injury unit, an algorithm has been developed to help identification of those patients with more severe nerve injuries.

Early identification of patients with high-grade injuries allows rapid referral to peripheral nerve injury centres, allowing specialist observation or intervention at an early stage in their injury, thus aiming to maximize potential for recovery.

Cite this article: EFORT Open Rev 2018;3:70-77. DOI:10.1302/2058-5241.3.170003.

Triceps motor branch transfer for isolated axillary nerve injury: Outcomes in 9 patients

INTRODUCTION

Triceps motor branch transfer has been used for more than ten years to restore deltoid function after axillary nerve injury. However, there have been few reports of the outcome of this procedure in isolated axillary nerve injury.

HYPOTHESIS

Triceps motor branch transfer could be an effective method to restore deltoid function for patients with isolated axillary nerve injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nine patients who underwent triceps motor branch transfer for treatment of isolated axillary nerve injury were followed up for at least 22 months. Shoulder abduction was assessed for all patients. The DASH outcome questionnaire was completed by every patient. Electrophysiological study was performed on 7 patients.

RESULTS

All patients regained≥90° (mean, 137°) shoulder abduction. Mean DASH score decreased from 35.2 before surgery to 13.1 at the last follow-up. There was no noticeable weakness of elbow extension in any patient.

DISCUSSION

Triceps motor branch transfer provided good results and may be a feasible alternative to nerve grafting for the treatment of complete isolated axillary nerve injury.

TYPE OF STUDY

IV, retrospective cohort study.

Nerve Transfer versus Interpositional Nerve Graft Reconstruction for Posttraumatic, Isolated Axillary Nerve Injuries: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to compare functional outcomes between nerve grafting and nerve transfer procedures in the setting of isolated, posttraumatic axillary nerve injuries.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed using the PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane databases to identify all cases of isolated, posttraumatic axillary nerve injuries in patients aged 18 years or older. Patients who underwent axillary nerve reconstruction were included and categorized by technique: graft or transfer. Demographics were recorded, including age, time to operation, and presence of concomitant injuries. Functional outcomes were evaluated, including British Medical Research Council strength and range of motion for shoulder abduction.

RESULTS

Ten retrospective studies met criteria, for a total of 66 patients (20 nerve grafts and 46 nerve transfers). Median time from injury to operation was equivalent across the nerve graft and nerve transfer groups (8.0 months versus 7.0 months; p = 0.41). Postoperative follow-up was 24.0 months for nerve grafting versus 18.5 months for nerve transfer (p = 0.13). Clinically useful shoulder abduction, defined as British Medical Research Council grade M3 or greater, was obtained in 100 percent of nerve graft patients versus 87 percent of nerve transfer patients (p = 0.09). Grade M4 or better strength was obtained in 85 percent of nerve graft patients and 73.9 percent of nerve transfer patients (p = 0.32).

CONCLUSIONS

Significant differences in functional outcomes between nerve graft and transfer procedures for posttraumatic axillary nerve injuries are not apparent at this time. Prospective outcomes studies are needed to better elucidate whether functional differences do exist.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, IV.

Triceps nerve to deltoid nerve transfer after an unsatisfactory intra-plexus neurotization of the posterior division of the upper trunk

INTRODUCTION

Our literature review did not reveal any study on the results of triceps to deltoid nerve transfer done as a secondary procedure after an unsatisfactory primary intraplexus neurotization of the posterior division of the upper trunk.

PRESENTATION OF CASES

We report on three adults with C5-C6 brachial plexus injury who had an unsatisfactory deltoid function following primary intraplexus neurotization. Patients presented to our clinic late (14-16 months after injury). All patients had poor shoulder abduction (<40°) despite the presence of visible and palpable deltoid contractions. A triceps to deltoid nerve transfer resulted in an excellent shoulder abduction (> 150°) in all patients.

DISCUSSION

The primary surgery in our patients acted as a "baby-sitter" procedure; explaining the good results of the late secondary distal nerve transfer.

CONCLUSION

Good results may be obtained from a late distal nerve transfer for the deltoid muscle as long as there is partial innervation of the muscle.

A systematic review of outcomes of contralateral C-7 transfer for the treatment of traumatic brachial plexus injury: an international comparison

OBJECTIVE

The effectiveness of contralateral C-7 (CC7) transfer is controversial, yet this procedure has been performed around the world to treat brachial plexus injuries. The authors performed a systematic review to study whether Asian countries reported better outcomes after CC7 transfer compared with “other” countries.

METHODS

A systematic literature search using PubMed, EMBASE, and 3 Chinese databases was completed. Patient outcomes of CC7 transfer to the median and musculocutaneous (MC) nerves were collected and categorized into 2 groups: Asia and “other” countries. China was included as a subcategory of Asia because investigators in China published the majority of the collected studies. To compare outcomes among studies, we created a normalized Medical Research Council (MRC) scale.

RESULTS

For median nerve outcomes, Asia reported that 41% of patients achieved an MRC grade of ≥ M3 of wrist flexion compared with 62% in “other” countries. For finger flexion, Asia found that 41% of patients reached an MRC grade of ≥ M3 compared with 38% in “other” countries. Asia reported that 60% of patients achieved ≥ S3 sensory recovery, compared with 32% in “other” countries. For MC nerve outcomes, 75% of patients from both Asia and “other” countries reached M4 and M3 in elbow flexion.

CONCLUSIONS

Current data did not demonstrate that studies from Asian countries reported better outcomes of CC7 transfer to the median and MC nerves. Future studies should focus on comparing outcomes of different surgical strategies for CC7 transfer.

Radial to Axillary Nerve Transfers: A Combined Case Series

PURPOSE

Loss of active shoulder abduction after brachial plexus or isolated axillary nerve injury is associated with a severe functional deficit. The purpose of this 2-center study was to retrospectively evaluate restoration of shoulder abduction after transfer of a radial nerve branch to the axillary nerve for patients after brachial plexus or axillary nerve injury.

METHODS

Patients who underwent transfer of a radial nerve branch to the anterior branch of the axillary nerve between 2004 and 2014 were reviewed. A total of 27 patients with an average follow-up of 22 months were included. Outcome measures included pre- and postoperative shoulder abduction and triceps strength and active and passive shoulder range of motion.

RESULTS

Shoulder abduction strength increased after surgery in 89% of patients. Average preoperative shoulder abduction was 12° compared with 114° after surgery. Twenty-two of 27 patients (81.5%) achieved at least M3 strength, with 17 of 27 patients (62.9%) achieving M4 strength. No differences were observed when subgroup analysis was performed for isolated nerve transfer versus multiple nerve transfer, mechanism of injury, injury level, branch of radial nerve transferred, or time from injury to surgery. A negative correlation was found comparing increasing age and both shoulder abduction strength and active shoulder abduction. No patients lost triceps strength after surgery. There were 4 patients who achieved no significant gain in shoulder abduction or deltoid strength and were deemed failures. No postoperative complications occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

Transfer of a branch of the radial nerve to the anterior branch of the axillary nerve was successful in improving shoulder abduction strength and active shoulder motion in the majority of the patients with brachial plexus or isolated axillary nerve injury.

TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic IV.

Successful Nerve Transfers for Traumatic Brachial Plexus Palsy in a Septuagenarian: A Case Report

Background: Conventional wisdom and the available literature demonstrate compromised outcomes following nerve reconstruction for traumatic brachial plexus palsy in the elderly. We present a 74-year-old male who was reconstructed with multiple nerve transfers for brachial plexus palsy after a ski accident. Methods: Triceps to axillary nerve transfer, spinal accessory to suprascapular nerve transfer, and ulnar to musculocutaneous nerve transfer were performed 16 weeks post injury. Results: At 11 years post-op, the patient could abduct to 65° and forward flex at M4 strength, limited only by painful glenohumeral arthritis. Elbow flexion was M5- at both the biceps and brachialis, and bulk and tone were nearly symmetrical with the opposite side. Eleven-year electrodiagnostic studies demonstrated reinnervation and improved motor unit recruitment all affected muscles. Conclusion: This case questions the widely held dogma that older patients who undergo brachial plexus reconstruction do poorly. Given the short reinnervation distance and optimal donor nerve health, nerve transfers may be an excellent option for healthy older patients with traumatic brachial plexus palsy.