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Jansson-Fritzberg LI, Sousa CI, Smallegan MJ, Song JJ, Gooding AR, Kasinath V, Rinn JL, Cech TR. DNMT1 inhibition by pUG-fold quadruplex RNA. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 29:346-360. [PMID: 36574982 PMCID: PMC9945446 DOI: 10.1261/rna.079479.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant DNA methylation is one of the earliest hallmarks of cancer. DNMT1 is responsible for methylating newly replicated DNA, but the precise regulation of DNMT1 to ensure faithful DNA methylation remains poorly understood. A link between RNA and chromatin-associated proteins has recently emerged, and several studies have shown that DNMT1 can be regulated by a variety of RNAs. In this study, we have confirmed that human DNMT1 indeed interacts with multiple RNAs, including its own nuclear mRNA. Unexpectedly, we found that DNMT1 exhibits a strong and specific affinity for GU-rich RNAs that form a pUG-fold, a noncanonical G-quadruplex. We find that pUG-fold-capable RNAs inhibit DNMT1 activity by inhibiting binding of hemimethylated DNA, and we additionally provide evidence for multiple RNA binding modes with DNMT1. Together, our data indicate that a human chromatin-associated protein binds to and is regulated by pUG-fold RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linnea I Jansson-Fritzberg
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - Camila I Sousa
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - Michael J Smallegan
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - Jessica J Song
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - Anne R Gooding
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - Vignesh Kasinath
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - John L Rinn
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
| | - Thomas R Cech
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA
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2
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Song J, Gooding AR, Hemphill WO, Kasinath V, Cech TR. Structural basis for inactivation of PRC2 by G-quadruplex RNA. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.06.527314. [PMID: 36798278 PMCID: PMC9934548 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.06.527314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The histone methyltransferase PRC2 (Polycomb Repressive Complex 2) silences genes via successively attaching three methyl groups to lysine 27 of histone H3. PRC2 associates with numerous pre-mRNA and lncRNA transcripts with a binding preference for G-quadruplex RNA. Here, we present a 3.3Ã…-resolution cryo-EM structure of PRC2 bound to a G-quadruplex RNA. Notably, RNA mediates the dimerization of PRC2 by binding both protomers and inducing a protein interface comprised of two copies of the catalytic subunit EZH2, which limits nucleosome DNA interaction and occludes H3 tail accessibility to the active site. Our results reveal an unexpected mechanism for RNA-mediated inactivation of a chromatin-modifying enzyme. Furthermore, the flexible loop of EZH2 that helps stabilize RNA binding also facilitates the handoff between RNA and DNA, an activity implicated in PRC2 regulation by RNA. One-Sentence Summary Cryo-EM structure of RNA-bound PRC2 dimer elucidates an unexpected mechanism of PRC2 inhibition by RNA.
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3
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Zhou L, Cheng A, Wang M, Wu Y, Yang Q, Tian B, Ou X, Sun D, Zhang S, Mao S, Zhao XX, Huang J, Gao Q, Zhu D, Jia R, Liu M, Chen S. Mechanism of herpesvirus protein kinase UL13 in immune escape and viral replication. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1088690. [PMID: 36531988 PMCID: PMC9749954 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1088690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon infection, the herpes viruses create a cellular environment suitable for survival, but innate immunity plays a vital role in cellular resistance to viral infection. The UL13 protein of herpesviruses is conserved among all herpesviruses and is a serine/threonine protein kinase, which plays a vital role in escaping innate immunity and promoting viral replication. On the one hand, it can target various immune signaling pathways in vivo, such as the cGAS-STING pathway and the NF-κB pathway. On the other hand, it phosphorylates regulatory many cellular and viral proteins for promoting the lytic cycle. This paper reviews the research progress of the conserved herpesvirus protein kinase UL13 in immune escape and viral replication to provide a basis for elucidating the pathogenic mechanism of herpesviruses, as well as providing insights into the potential means of immune escape and viral replication of other herpesviruses that have not yet resolved the function of it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,*Correspondence: Mingshu Wang,
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Bin Tian
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xumin Ou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Di Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Sai Mao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xin-Xin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Juan Huang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qun Gao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Berkyurek AC, Furlan G, Lampersberger L, Beltran T, Weick E, Nischwitz E, Cunha Navarro I, Braukmann F, Akay A, Price J, Butter F, Sarkies P, Miska EA. The RNA polymerase II subunit RPB-9 recruits the integrator complex to terminate Caenorhabditis elegans piRNA transcription. EMBO J 2021; 40:e105565. [PMID: 33533030 PMCID: PMC7917558 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020105565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are genome-encoded small RNAs that regulate germ cell development and maintain germline integrity in many animals. Mature piRNAs engage Piwi Argonaute proteins to silence complementary transcripts, including transposable elements and endogenous genes. piRNA biogenesis mechanisms are diverse and remain poorly understood. Here, we identify the RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) core subunit RPB-9 as required for piRNA-mediated silencing in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We show that rpb-9 initiates heritable piRNA-mediated gene silencing at two DNA transposon families and at a subset of somatic genes in the germline. We provide genetic and biochemical evidence that RPB-9 is required for piRNA biogenesis by recruiting the Integrator complex at piRNA genes, hence promoting transcriptional termination. We conclude that, as a part of its rapid evolution, the piRNA pathway has co-opted an ancient machinery for high-fidelity transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet C Berkyurek
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Giulia Furlan
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Lisa Lampersberger
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Toni Beltran
- MRC London Institute of Medical SciencesLondonUK
- Institute of Clinical SciencesImperial College LondonLondonUK
| | - Eva‐Maria Weick
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Present address:
Structural Biology ProgramSloan Kettering InstituteMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer CenterNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Emily Nischwitz
- Quantitative ProteomicsInstitute of Molecular BiologyMainzGermany
| | - Isabela Cunha Navarro
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Fabian Braukmann
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Alper Akay
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Present address:
School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich, NorfolkUK
| | - Jonathan Price
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Falk Butter
- Quantitative ProteomicsInstitute of Molecular BiologyMainzGermany
| | - Peter Sarkies
- MRC London Institute of Medical SciencesLondonUK
- Institute of Clinical SciencesImperial College LondonLondonUK
| | - Eric A Miska
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Wellcome Sanger InstituteWellcome Trust Genome CampusCambridgeUK
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5
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Noncoding RNAs Set the Stage for RNA Polymerase II Transcription. Trends Genet 2020; 37:279-291. [PMID: 33046273 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2020.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Effective synthesis of mammalian messenger (m)RNAs depends on many factors that together direct RNA polymerase II (pol II) through the different stages of the transcription cycle and ensure efficient cotranscriptional processing of mRNAs. In addition to the many proteins involved in transcription initiation, elongation, and termination, several noncoding (nc)RNAs also function as global transcriptional regulators. Understanding the mode of action of these non-protein regulators has been an intense area of research in recent years. Here, we describe how these ncRNAs influence key regulatory steps of the transcription process, to affect large numbers of genes. Through direct association with pol II or by modulating the activity of transcription or RNA processing factors, these regulatory RNAs perform critical roles in gene expression.
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6
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TDP-43 regulates transcription at protein-coding genes and Alu retrotransposons. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2019; 1862:194434. [PMID: 31655156 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2019.194434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The 43-kDa transactive response DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) is an example of an RNA-binding protein that regulates RNA metabolism at multiple levels from transcription and splicing to translation. Its role in post-transcriptional RNA processing has been a primary focus of recent research, but its role in regulating transcription has been studied for only a few human genes. We characterized the effects of TDP-43 on transcription genome-wide and found that TDP-43 broadly affects transcription of protein-coding and noncoding RNA genes. Among protein-coding genes, the effects of TDP-43 were greatest for genes <30 thousand base pairs in length. Surprisingly, we found that the loss of TDP-43 resulted in increased evidence for transcription activity near repetitive Alu elements found within expressed genes. The highest densities of affected Alu elements were found in the shorter genes, whose transcription was most affected by TDP-43. Thus, in addition to its role in post-transcriptional RNA processing, TDP-43 plays a critical role in maintaining the transcriptional stability of protein-coding genes and transposable DNA elements.
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7
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Méndez C, Ledger S, Petoumenos K, Ahlenstiel C, Kelleher AD. RNA-induced epigenetic silencing inhibits HIV-1 reactivation from latency. Retrovirology 2018; 15:67. [PMID: 30286764 PMCID: PMC6172763 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-018-0451-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current antiretroviral therapy is effective in controlling HIV-1 infection. However, cessation of therapy is associated with rapid return of viremia from the viral reservoir. Eradicating the HIV-1 reservoir has proven difficult with the limited success of latency reactivation strategies and reflects the complexity of HIV-1 latency. Consequently, there is a growing need for alternate strategies. Here we explore a "block and lock" approach for enforcing latency to render the provirus unable to restart transcription despite exposure to reactivation stimuli. Reactivation of transcription from latent HIV-1 proviruses can be epigenetically blocked using promoter-targeted shRNAs to prevent productive infection. We aimed to determine if independent and combined expression of shRNAs, PromA and 143, induce a repressive epigenetic profile that is sufficiently stable to protect latently infected cells from HIV-1 reactivation when treated with a range of latency reversing agents (LRAs). RESULTS J-Lat 9.2 cells, a model of HIV-1 latency, expressing shRNAs PromA, 143, PromA/143 or controls were treated with LRAs to evaluate protection from HIV-1 reactivation as determined by levels of GFP expression. Cells expressing shRNA PromA, 143, or both, showed robust resistance to viral reactivation by: TNF, SAHA, SAHA/TNF, Bryostatin/TNF, DZNep, and Chaetocin. Given the physiological importance of TNF, HIV-1 reactivation was induced by TNF (5 ng/mL) and ChIP assays were performed to detect changes in expression of epigenetic markers within chromatin in both sorted GFP- and GFP+ cell populations, harboring latent or reactivated proviruses, respectively. Ordinary two-way ANOVA analysis used to identify interactions between shRNAs and chromatin marks associated with repressive or active chromatin in the integrated provirus revealed significant changes in the levels of H3K27me3, AGO1 and HDAC1 in the LTR, which correlated with the extent of reduced proviral reactivation. The cell line co-expressing shPromA and sh143 consistently showed the least reactivation and greatest enrichment of chromatin compaction indicators. CONCLUSION The active maintenance of epigenetic silencing by shRNAs acting on the HIV-1 LTR impedes HIV-1 reactivation from latency. Our "block and lock" approach constitutes a novel way of enforcing HIV-1 "super latency" through a closed chromatin architecture that renders the virus resistant to a range of latency reversing agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalina Méndez
- Department of Immunovirology and Pathogenesis, Level 5, Wallace Wurth Building, The Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Scott Ledger
- Department of Immunovirology and Pathogenesis, Level 5, Wallace Wurth Building, The Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Kathy Petoumenos
- Department of Immunovirology and Pathogenesis, Level 5, Wallace Wurth Building, The Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Chantelle Ahlenstiel
- Department of Immunovirology and Pathogenesis, Level 5, Wallace Wurth Building, The Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
| | - Anthony D Kelleher
- Department of Immunovirology and Pathogenesis, Level 5, Wallace Wurth Building, The Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
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8
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Isaac C, Patel TR, Zovoilis A. Non-coding RNAs in virology: an RNA genomics approach. Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev 2018; 34:90-106. [PMID: 29865927 DOI: 10.1080/02648725.2018.1471642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Advances in sequencing technologies and bioinformatic analysis techniques have greatly improved our understanding of various classes of RNAs and their functions. Despite not coding for proteins, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are emerging as essential biomolecules fundamental for cellular functions and cell survival. Interestingly, ncRNAs produced by viruses not only control the expression of viral genes, but also influence host cell regulation and circumvent host innate immune response. Correspondingly, ncRNAs produced by the host genome can play a key role in host-virus interactions. In this article, we will first discuss a number of types of viral and mammalian ncRNAs associated with viral infections. Subsequently, we also describe the new possibilities and opportunities that RNA genomics and next-generation sequencing technologies provide for studying ncRNAs in virology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Isaac
- a Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge , Lethbridge , Canada
| | - Trushar R Patel
- a Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge , Lethbridge , Canada.,b Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases , Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary , Calgary , Canada.,c DiscoveryLab, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Canada
| | - Athanasios Zovoilis
- a Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge , Lethbridge , Canada
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9
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Makowski MM, Gräwe C, Foster BM, Nguyen NV, Bartke T, Vermeulen M. Global profiling of protein-DNA and protein-nucleosome binding affinities using quantitative mass spectrometry. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1653. [PMID: 29695722 PMCID: PMC5916898 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04084-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Interaction proteomics studies have provided fundamental insights into multimeric biomolecular assemblies and cell-scale molecular networks. Significant recent developments in mass spectrometry-based interaction proteomics have been fueled by rapid advances in label-free, isotopic, and isobaric quantitation workflows. Here, we report a quantitative protein–DNA and protein–nucleosome binding assay that uses affinity purifications from nuclear extracts coupled with isobaric chemical labeling and mass spectrometry to quantify apparent binding affinities proteome-wide. We use this assay with a variety of DNA and nucleosome baits to quantify apparent binding affinities of monomeric and multimeric transcription factors and chromatin remodeling complexes. Quantitative mass spectrometry enables the proteome-wide assessment of biomolecular binding affinities. While previous approaches mainly focused on protein–small molecule interactions, the authors here present a method to probe protein–DNA and protein–nucleosome binding affinities at proteome scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Makowski
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands.,Oncode Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands
| | - Cathrin Gräwe
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands.,Oncode Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin M Foster
- Institute of Functional Epigenetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany.,MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences (LMS), London, W12 0NN, UK.,Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Nhuong V Nguyen
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences (LMS), London, W12 0NN, UK.,Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Till Bartke
- Institute of Functional Epigenetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany. .,MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences (LMS), London, W12 0NN, UK. .,Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK.
| | - Michiel Vermeulen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands. .,Oncode Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 6500 HB, The Netherlands.
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10
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Wang X, Ji P, Zhang Y, LaComb JF, Tian X, Li E, Williams JL. Aberrant DNA Methylation: Implications in Racial Health Disparity. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153125. [PMID: 27111221 PMCID: PMC4844165 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Incidence and mortality rates of colorectal carcinoma (CRC) are higher in African Americans (AAs) than in Caucasian Americans (CAs). Deficient micronutrient intake due to dietary restrictions in racial/ethnic populations can alter genetic and molecular profiles leading to dysregulated methylation patterns and the inheritance of somatic to germline mutations. Materials and Methods Total DNA and RNA samples of paired tumor and adjacent normal colon tissues were prepared from AA and CA CRC specimens. Reduced Representation Bisulfite Sequencing (RRBS) and RNA sequencing were employed to evaluate total genome methylation of 5’-regulatory regions and dysregulation of gene expression, respectively. Robust analysis was conducted using a trimming-and-retrieving scheme for RRBS library mapping in conjunction with the BStool toolkit. Results DNA from the tumor of AA CRC patients, compared to adjacent normal tissues, contained 1,588 hypermethylated and 100 hypomethylated differentially methylated regions (DMRs). Whereas, 109 hypermethylated and 4 hypomethylated DMRs were observed in DNA from the tumor of CA CRC patients; representing a 14.6-fold and 25-fold change, respectively. Specifically; CHL1, 4 anti-inflammatory genes (i.e., NELL1, GDF1, ARHGEF4, and ITGA4), and 7 miRNAs (of which miR-9-3p and miR-124-3p have been implicated in CRC) were hypermethylated in DNA samples from AA patients with CRC. From the same sample set, RNAseq analysis revealed 108 downregulated genes (including 14 ribosomal proteins) and 34 upregulated genes (including POLR2B and CYP1B1 [targets of miR-124-3p]) in AA patients with CRC versus CA patients. Conclusion DNA methylation profile and/or products of its downstream targets could serve as biomarker(s) addressing racial health disparity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Wang
- Department of Family, Population and Preventive Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
| | - Ping Ji
- Department of Family, Population and Preventive Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Division of Cancer Prevention, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
| | - Yuanhao Zhang
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
| | - Joseph F. LaComb
- Department of Family, Population and Preventive Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Division of Cancer Prevention, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
| | - Xinyu Tian
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
| | - Ellen Li
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Division of Gastroenterology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
| | - Jennie L. Williams
- Department of Family, Population and Preventive Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- Division of Cancer Prevention, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Noncoding RNA as regulators of cardiac fibrosis: current insight and the road ahead. Pflugers Arch 2016; 468:1103-11. [PMID: 26786602 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-016-1792-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac fibrosis is an important pathological feature of cardiac remodeling in heart diseases. The molecular mechanisms of cardiac fibrosis are unknown. Genomic analyses estimated that many noncoding DNA regions generate noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). ncRNAs have emerged as key molecular players in the regulation of gene expression in different biological processes. Recent studies have started to reveal the importance of ncRNAs in heart development and suggest also an involvement in cardiac fibrosis. These molecules are emerging as important regulators of cellular process. Here, we review particularly focuses on the involvement of two large families of ncRNAs, namely microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (LncRNAs) in the regulation of cardiac fibrosis. Furthermore, we review the functions and role of ncRNAs in cardiac biology and discuss these reports and the therapeutic potential of ncRNAs for cardiac fibrosis associated with fibroblast activation and proliferation.
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12
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Karijolich J, Abernathy E, Glaunsinger BA. Infection-Induced Retrotransposon-Derived Noncoding RNAs Enhance Herpesviral Gene Expression via the NF-κB Pathway. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005260. [PMID: 26584434 PMCID: PMC4652899 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are highly abundant, RNA polymerase III-transcribed noncoding retrotransposons that are silenced in somatic cells but activated during certain stresses including viral infection. How these induced SINE RNAs impact the host-pathogen interaction is unknown. Here we reveal that during murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68) infection, rapidly induced SINE RNAs activate the antiviral NF-κB signaling pathway through both mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein (MAVS)-dependent and independent mechanisms. However, SINE RNA-based signaling is hijacked by the virus to enhance viral gene expression and replication. B2 RNA expression stimulates IKKβ-dependent phosphorylation of the major viral lytic cycle transactivator protein RTA, thereby enhancing its activity and increasing progeny virion production. Collectively, these findings suggest that SINE RNAs participate in the innate pathogen response mechanism, but that herpesviruses have evolved to co-opt retrotransposon activation for viral benefit. Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are noncoding mobile genetic elements that are present at ~106 copies per mammalian genome, roughly comprising 10% of mammalian genomic real estate. SINEs are typically transcriptionally silenced, though in some cases viral infection can promote their expression, yet to an unknown functional outcome. Thus, SINE elements represent the largest class of infection-inducible noncoding RNAs that are functionally uncharacterized. Here, we reveal that SINE RNAs play a critical role in the host-pathogen interaction in that they are required for efficient murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68) replication and gene expression. We demonstrate that SINE RNAs, both exogenously expressed and infection-induced, are robust activators of the IKKβ kinase, a key signaling molecule in the innate immune response. Activation of the IKKβ kinase by SINE RNA is mediated through both MAVS-dependent and independent mechanisms. Moreover, we demonstrate the activation of the IKKβ via SINE RNA is required to drive the phosphorylation of MHV68 RTA, the main viral transcriptional activator, which enhances its transcriptional activating property. Collectively, we reveal the first example of a role for SINE RNAs in the host-pathogen interaction and identify them as a key immune signaling molecule early during infection. Though SINE RNAs activate the innate immune response, MHV68 has co-opted SINE-mediate innate immune activation to enhance the viral lifecycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Karijolich
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Emma Abernathy
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Britt A. Glaunsinger
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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13
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Ponicsan SL, Kugel JF, Goodrich JA. Repression of RNA Polymerase II Transcription by B2 RNA Depends on a Specific Pattern of Structural Regions in the RNA. Noncoding RNA 2015; 1:4-16. [PMID: 26405685 PMCID: PMC4578731 DOI: 10.3390/ncrna1010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
B2 RNA is a mouse non-coding RNA that binds directly to RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and represses transcription by disrupting critical interactions between the polymerase and promoter DNA. How the structural regions within B2 RNA work together to mediate transcriptional repression is not well understood. To address this question, we systematically deleted structural regions from B2 RNA and determined the effects on transcriptional repression using a highly purified Pol II in vitro transcription system. Deletions that compromised the ability of B2 RNA to function as a transcriptional repressor were also tested for their ability to bind directly to Pol II, which enabled us to distinguish regions uniquely important for repression from those important for binding. We found that transcriptional repression requires a pattern of RNA structural motifs consisting of an extended single-stranded region bordered by two stem-loops. Hence, there is modularity in the function of the stem-loops in B2 RNA-when one stem-loop is deleted, another can take its place to enable transcriptional repression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jennifer F. Kugel
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (J.G.); (J.K.); Tel.: +1-303-492-3273 (J.G.); Tel.: +1-303-492-3596 (J.K.)
| | - James A. Goodrich
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (J.G.); (J.K.); Tel.: +1-303-492-3273 (J.G.); Tel.: +1-303-492-3596 (J.K.)
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Brosius J. The persistent contributions of RNA to eukaryotic gen(om)e architecture and cellular function. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2014; 6:a016089. [PMID: 25081515 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a016089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Currently, the best scenario for earliest forms of life is based on RNA molecules as they have the proven ability to catalyze enzymatic reactions and harbor genetic information. Evolutionary principles valid today become apparent in such models already. Furthermore, many features of eukaryotic genome architecture might have their origins in an RNA or RNA/protein (RNP) world, including the onset of a further transition, when DNA replaced RNA as the genetic bookkeeper of the cell. Chromosome maintenance, splicing, and regulatory function via RNA may be deeply rooted in the RNA/RNP worlds. Mostly in eukaryotes, conversion from RNA to DNA is still ongoing, which greatly impacts the plasticity of extant genomes. Raw material for novel genes encoding protein or RNA, or parts of genes including regulatory elements that selection can act on, continues to enter the evolutionary lottery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Brosius
- Institute of Experimental Pathology (ZMBE), University of Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany
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15
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Pai DA, Kaplan CD, Kweon HK, Murakami K, Andrews PC, Engelke DR. RNAs nonspecifically inhibit RNA polymerase II by preventing binding to the DNA template. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2014; 20:644-655. [PMID: 24614752 PMCID: PMC3988566 DOI: 10.1261/rna.040444.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Many RNAs are known to act as regulators of transcription in eukaryotes, including certain small RNAs that directly inhibit RNA polymerases both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. We have examined the potential for a variety of RNAs to directly inhibit transcription by yeast RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and find that unstructured RNAs are potent inhibitors of purified yeast Pol II. Inhibition by RNA is achieved by blocking binding of the DNA template and requires binding of the RNA to Pol II prior to open complex formation. RNA is not able to displace a DNA template that is already stably bound to Pol II, nor can RNA inhibit elongating Pol II. Unstructured RNAs are more potent inhibitors than highly structured RNAs and can also block specific transcription initiation in the presence of basal transcription factors. Crosslinking studies with ultraviolet light show that unstructured RNA is most closely associated with the two large subunits of Pol II that comprise the template binding cleft, but the RNA has contacts in a basic residue channel behind the back wall of the active site. These results are distinct from previous observations of specific inhibition by small, structured RNAs in that they demonstrate a sensitivity of the holoenzyme to inhibition by unstructured RNA products that bind to a surface outside the DNA cleft. These results are discussed in terms of the need to prevent inhibition by RNAs, either though sequestration of nascent RNA or preemptive interaction of Pol II with the DNA template.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dave A. Pai
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Craig D. Kaplan
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Hye Kyong Kweon
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Kenji Murakami
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Philip C. Andrews
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - David R. Engelke
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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Hung CJ, Hu CC, Lin NS, Lee YC, Meng M, Tsai CH, Hsu YH. Two key arginine residues in the coat protein of Bamboo mosaic virus differentially affect the accumulation of viral genomic and subgenomic RNAs. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2014; 15:196-210. [PMID: 24393453 PMCID: PMC6638855 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The interactions between viral RNAs and coat proteins (CPs) are critical for the efficient completion of infection cycles of RNA viruses. However, the specificity of the interactions between CPs and genomic or subgenomic RNAs remains poorly understood. In this study, Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) was used to analyse such interactions. Using reversible formaldehyde cross-linking and mass spectrometry, two regions in CP, each containing a basic amino acid (R99 and R227, respectively), were identified to bind directly to the 5' untranslated region of BaMV genomic RNA. Analyses of the alanine mutations of R99 and R227 revealed that the secondary structures of CP were not affected significantly, whereas the accumulation of BaMV genomic, but not subgenomic, RNA was severely decreased at 24 h post-inoculation in the inoculated protoplasts. In the absence of CP, the accumulation levels of genomic and subgenomic RNAs were decreased to 1.1%-1.5% and 33%-40% of that of the wild-type (wt), respectively, in inoculated leaves at 5 days post-inoculation (dpi). In contrast, in the presence of mutant CPs, the genomic RNAs remained about 1% of that of wt, whereas the subgenomic RNAs accumulated to at least 87%, suggesting that CP might increase the accumulation of subgenomic RNAs. The mutations also restricted viral movement and virion formation in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves at 5 dpi. These results demonstrate that R99 and R227 of CP play crucial roles in the accumulation, movement and virion formation of BaMV RNAs, and indicate that genomic and subgenomic RNAs interact differently with BaMV CP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Jen Hung
- Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan
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Steuten B, Schneider S, Wagner R. 6S RNA: recent answers--future questions. Mol Microbiol 2014; 91:641-8. [PMID: 24308327 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
6S RNA is a non-coding RNA, found in almost all phylogenetic branches of bacteria. Through its conserved secondary structure, resembling open DNA promoters, it binds to RNA polymerase and interferes with transcription at many promoters. That way, it functions as transcriptional regulator facilitating adaptation to stationary phase conditions. Strikingly, 6S RNA acts as template for the synthesis of small RNAs (pRNA), which trigger the disintegration of the inhibitory RNA polymerase-6S RNA complex releasing 6S RNA-dependent repression. The regulatory implications of 6S RNAs vary among different bacterial species depending on the lifestyle and specific growth conditions that they have to face. The influence of 6S RNA can be seen on many different processes including stationary growth, sporulation, light adaptation or intracellular growth of pathogenic bacteria. Recent structural and functional studies have yielded details of the interaction between E. coli 6S RNA and RNA polymerase. Genome-wide transcriptome analyses provided insight into the functional diversity of 6S RNAs. Moreover, the mechanism and physiological consequences of pRNA synthesis have been explored in several systems. A major function of 6S RNA as a guardian regulating the economic use of cellular resources under limiting conditions and stress emerges as a common perception from numerous recent studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Steuten
- Molecular Biology of Bacteria, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, D-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Abstract
RNA transcripts that do not code for proteins have been long known to lie at the heart of many biological processes, such as splicing and translation. Yet their full potential has only been appreciated recently and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are now attracting increasing attention. Pioneering work in yeast and plant systems has revealed that non-coding RNAs can have a major influence on the deposition of histone and DNA modifications. This can introduce heritable variation into gene expression and, thus, be the basis of epigenetic phenomena. Mechanistically, such processes have been studied extensively in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, providing an important conceptual framework for possible modes of action of ncRNAs also in other organisms. In this review, we highlight mechanistic insights into chromatin-associated ncRNA activities gained from work with fission yeast, and we draw parallels to studies in other eukaryotes that indicate evolutionary conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Keller
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 10, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marc Bühler
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 10, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
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Ostankovitch M, Pyle AM. Noncoding RNAs: A story of networks and long-distance relationships. J Mol Biol 2013; 425:3577-81. [PMID: 23911549 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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