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Llana T, Zorzo C, Mendez-Lopez M, Mendez M. Memory alterations after COVID-19 infection: a systematic review. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. ADULT 2024; 31:292-305. [PMID: 36108666 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2022.2123739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infection has a wide range of both acute and long-term symptoms. Memory alterations have been frequently reported in studies that explore cognition. The main objective of the systematic review is to update and further analyze the existing evidence of objective memory impairments in long-COVID-19 considering sample and study design characteristics, as well as to explore associations between memory performance and their epidemiological, clinical, and pathological features. A total of 13 studies were identified by searching in PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycInfo databases up to May 6, 2022. Most studies evaluated verbal component of memory in the short-term and long-term recall up to 30 min and mainly performed a single assessment completed at 4-6 months after the infection. The samples mainly consisted of middle-aged adults that required hospitalization. Samples were not stratified by sex, age, and severity. Poor verbal learning was reported in most cases (6-58%), followed by deficits in long-term (4-58%) and short-term (4-37%) verbal memory. Visuospatial component of memory was studied less than verbal component, showing impairment of long-term retention of visual items (10-49%). COVID-19 severity in the acute stage was not systematically associated with poor memory performance. Verbal memory deficits were associated with anxiety and depression. The existing literature on objective memory assessment in long-COVID suggests further research is warranted to confirm memory dysfunction in association with epidemiological, pathological, and clinical factors, using both verbal and visuospatial tests, and exploring in deep long-term memory deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Llana
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Candela Zorzo
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Faculty of Psychology, Neuroscience Institute of Principado de Asturias (INEUROPA), Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Av. del Hospital Universitario, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Magdalena Mendez-Lopez
- Department of Psychology and Sociology, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- IIS Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Marta Mendez
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Faculty of Psychology, Neuroscience Institute of Principado de Asturias (INEUROPA), Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Av. del Hospital Universitario, Oviedo, Spain
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Leahy J, Bajracharya R, Altonen B, Ferreira-Ortiz M, Silvera L, Astua AJ. Post-discharge Healthcare Usage and Costs From March 2020 Through the Omicron Surge for Individuals Hospitalized With COVID-19. Cureus 2023; 15:e50663. [PMID: 38229792 PMCID: PMC10790598 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.50663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite the rise of post-COVID care centers, few studies exist that quantify the burden of patient healthcare usage and hospital costs after COVID-19 hospitalization. It is essential to target post-COVID follow-up care to the individuals who need it most, such that costs and emergencies are minimized and health and appointment attendance are optimized. METHODS This was a retrospective cohort comparison among four groups of 50 patients (200 total). Post-discharge healthcare utilization metrics were collected for individuals hospitalized with COVID-19 during the first four surges of the pandemic to compare how patients receive and seek care in the year after they contract COVID-19. A brief cost analysis was done to identify high-usage groups that could be targeted for intervention to decrease post-COVID hospitalization emergencies and burden. RESULTS Patients hospitalized during the Omicron surge were scheduled for the most specialist visits on average, significantly higher than average specialist visits in the Delta surge (p<0.05). The Delta surge had significantly less specialty care and missed visits than all other surges (p<0.05) and less primary care than the first two surges of the pandemic (p<0.05). Patients with type 2 diabetes and asthma had the highest overall costs (p<0.05). Females and Hispanic patients had the highest specialty and ED costs (p<0.05). CONCLUSION Each surge reflects a different approach to post-COVID care, with the Omicron surge demonstrating the heaviest usage overall, particularly with specialty visits. Increased specialty referrals may exacerbate rates of missed appointments, while primary care may lower emergency visits. Future approaches to post-COVID care design should identify patients at risk for emergencies and reinstate them with primary care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine Leahy
- Pulmonary Critical Care, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
| | - Rebecca Bajracharya
- Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
| | - Brian Altonen
- Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Elmhurst Hospital Center, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Alfred J Astua
- Pulmonary Critical Care, Elmhurst Hospital Center, New York, USA
- Pulmonary Critical Care, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
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Kuodi P, Gorelik Y, Gausi B, Bernstine T, Edelstein M. Characterization of post-COVID syndromes by symptom cluster and time period up to 12 months post-infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis 2023; 134:1-7. [PMID: 37150350 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2023.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to characterize post-COVID condition symptoms and symptom clusters, their duration, and prevalence. METHODS We conducted a systematic review and random-effects meta-analysis of studies reporting post-COVID-19 symptoms and clusters, respectively. We searched MEDLINE (via PubMed), Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, and Mednar for literature reporting on the post-COVID condition up to August 2022. RESULTS In the 76 included studies, we found that although most symptoms were reported less frequently 7-12 months after infection compared to earlier, over 20% of patients reported at least one post-COVID condition-compatible symptom. In the seven studies reporting post-COVID symptom clusters, neurological clustering was consistently identified, followed by cardiorespiratory and systemic/inflammatory. CONCLUSION Post-COVID symptom clustering provides direction for research into the etiology, diagnosis, and management of post-COVID conditions. Studies reporting post-COVID symptom clusters remain rare due to the focus on individual symptom reporting. Studies on post-COVID symptom clusters should replace individual symptom reporting to accelerate our understanding of this emerging public health issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Kuodi
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel.
| | - Yanay Gorelik
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel
| | - Blessing Gausi
- School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Tomer Bernstine
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel
| | - Michael Edelstein
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel; Ziv Medical Centre, Safed, Israel
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Janket SJ, Fraser DD, Baird AE, Tamimi F, Sohaei D, Conte HA, Prassas I, Diamandis EP. Tachykinins and the potential causal factors for post-COVID-19 condition. THE LANCET. MICROBE 2023; 4:e642-e650. [PMID: 37327802 PMCID: PMC10263974 DOI: 10.1016/s2666-5247(23)00111-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The most prevalent symptoms of post-COVID-19 condition are pulmonary dysfunction, fatigue and muscle weakness, anxiety, anosmia, dysgeusia, headaches, difficulty in concentrating, sexual dysfunction, and digestive disturbances. Hence, neurological dysfunction and autonomic impairments predominate in post-COVID-19 condition. Tachykinins including the most studied substance P are neuropeptides expressed throughout the nervous and immune systems, and contribute to many physiopathological processes in the nervous, immune, gastrointestinal, respiratory, urogenital, and dermal systems and participate in inflammation, nociception, and cell proliferation. Substance P is a key molecule in neuroimmune crosstalk; immune cells near the peripheral nerve endings can send signals to the brain with cytokines, which highlights the important role of tachykinins in neuroimmune communication. We reviewed the evidence that relates the symptoms of post-COVID-19 condition to the functions of tachykinins and propose a putative pathogenic mechanism. The antagonism of tachykinins receptors can be a potential treatment target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sok-Ja Janket
- Center for Clinical and Translational Research, The Forsyth Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Douglas D Fraser
- Paediatric Critical Care, Western University and Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
| | - Alison E Baird
- Department of Neurology, SUNY Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Faleh Tamimi
- College of Dental Medicine, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Dorsa Sohaei
- McGill University School of Medicine, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Harry A Conte
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Johnson Memorial Hospital, Stafford Springs, CT, USA
| | - Ioannis Prassas
- Laboratory Medicine Program, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Aloè T, Novelli F, Puppo G, Pinelli V, Barisione E, Trucco E, Costanzo R, Covesnon MG, Grillo F, Zoccali P, Milanese M, Maniscalco S, Tagliabue E, Piroddi IMG, Venturi S, Serra M, Scordamaglia F, Ferrari M, Serafini A. Prevalence of Long COVID Symptoms Related to SARS-CoV-2 Strains. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1558. [PMID: 37511933 PMCID: PMC10381360 DOI: 10.3390/life13071558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few studies have assessed the differences of patterns of Long COVID (L-COVID) with regards to the pathogenetic SARS-CoV-2 strains. OBJECTIVES To investigate the relationship between demographic and clinical characteristics of acute phase of infection and the persistence of L-COVID symptoms and clinical presentation across different SARS-CoV-2 strains. METHODS In this observational-multicenter study we recorded all demographic and clinical characteristics, severity of infection, presence/persistence of symptoms of fatigue, dyspnoea and altered quality of life (QoL) at baseline and after 6 months, in a sample of Italian patients from Liguria between March 2020 and March 2022. RESULTS 308 patients (mean age 63.2 years; 55.5% men) with previous COVID were enrolled. Obese patients were 21.2% with a significant difference in obesity prevalence across the second and third wave (p = 0.012). Treatment strategies differed between waves (p < 0.001): more patients required invasive mechanical ventilation in the first wave, more patients were treated with high-flow nasal cannula/non-invasive ventilation in the in the second and more patients were treated with oxygen-therapy in the fourth wave. At baseline, a high proportion of patients were symptomatic (dyspnoea and fatigue), with impairment in some QoL indicators. A higher prevalence of patients with pain, were seen in the first wave compared to later infections (p = 0.01). At follow-up, we observed improvement of dyspnoea, fatigue and some dimensions of QoL scale evaluation such as mobility, usual activities, pain evaluations; instead there was no improvement in remaining QoL scale indicators (usual care and anxiety-depression). CONCLUSIONS There were no significant differences in the prevalence of the most frequent L-COVID symptoms, except for QoL pain domain that was especially associated with classical variant. Our results show substantial impact on social and professional life and usual care activities. These findings highlight the importance of multidisciplinary post COVID follow-up care including mental health support and rehabilitation program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresita Aloè
- Interventional Pulmonology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Emanuela Barisione
- Interventional Pulmonology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | - Elisa Trucco
- Pulmonology Unit, Ospedale Civile, 18100 Imperia, Italy
| | - Roberta Costanzo
- Pulmonology Unit, Ospedale Villa Scassi, ASL3 Genovese, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | | | - Federica Grillo
- Anatomic Pathology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16100 Genoa, Italy
- Anatomic Pathology Unit, Università degli Studi di Genova, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | | | - Manlio Milanese
- Pulmonology Unit, Ospedale S.Corona, 17027 Pietra Ligure, Italy
| | - Sara Maniscalco
- Pulmonology Unit, Ospedale S.Corona, 17027 Pietra Ligure, Italy
| | - Elena Tagliabue
- Interventional Pulmonology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | - Ines Maria Grazia Piroddi
- Interventional Pulmonology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Largo Rosanna Benzi 10, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | - Simonetta Venturi
- Pulmonology Unit, Ospedale Villa Scassi, ASL3 Genovese, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | - Maria Serra
- Pulmonology Unit, Ospedale Villa Scassi, ASL3 Genovese, 16100 Genoa, Italy
| | | | - Marta Ferrari
- Pulmonology Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16100 Genoa, Italy
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Platz T, Berlit P, Dohle C, Fickenscher H, Guha M, Köllner V, Kramer A, Koczulla R, Schlitt A. S2k-Guideline SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 and (early) rehabilitation - a consensus-based guideline for Germany. GMS HYGIENE AND INFECTION CONTROL 2023; 18:Doc12. [PMID: 37261059 PMCID: PMC10227492 DOI: 10.3205/dgkh000438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The consensus-based guideline "SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 and (early) rehabilitation" for Germany has two sections: In the first part, the guideline addresses infection protection-related procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the second part, it provides practice recommendations for rehabilitation after COVID-19. The specific recommendations for rehabilitation after COVID-19 as issued by 13 German medical societies and two patient-representative organizations are presented together with general background information for their development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Platz
- BDH-Klinik Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- Neurorehabilitation Research Group, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Peter Berlit
- German Society of Neurology Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Dohle
- P.A.N. Center for Post-Acute Neurorehabilitation, Fürst-Donnersmarck-Stiftung, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité – University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Helmut Fickenscher
- Institute for Infection Medicine, Kiel University and University Medical Center Schlewsig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
| | - Manju Guha
- Reha-Klinik am Sendesaal Bremen, Abteilung Kardiologie, Bremen, Germany
| | - Volker Köllner
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Rehabilitation Center Seehof, Federal German Pension Agency, and Research Group Psychosomatic Rehabilitation, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Teltow/Berlin, Germany
| | - Axel Kramer
- Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Rembert Koczulla
- Institute for Pulmonary Rehabilitation Research, Schön Klinik Berchtesgadener Land, Schönau am Königssee, Germany
- Department of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), University Medical Center Giessen and Marburg, Philipps University Marburg (UGMLC), Marburg, Germany
- Teaching Hospital, Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Axel Schlitt
- Paracelsus-Harz Clinic Bad Suderode, Quedlinburg, Germany
- Medical Faculty, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
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Gemignani F, Bellanova MF, Saccani E. Long-COVID phenotypes and small fiber neuropathy. J Neurol Sci 2023; 444:120490. [PMID: 36462223 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2022.120490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria F Bellanova
- Laboratory of Neuromuscular Histopathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Italy
| | - Elena Saccani
- Neurology Unit, Department of Specialized Medicine, University Hospital of Parma, Italy
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De Luca R, Bonanno M, Calabrò RS. Psychological and Cognitive Effects of Long COVID: A Narrative Review Focusing on the Assessment and Rehabilitative Approach. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11216554. [PMID: 36362782 PMCID: PMC9653636 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11216554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Long COVID is a clinical syndrome characterized by profound fatigue, neurocognitive difficulties, muscle pain, weakness, and depression, lasting beyond the 3–12 weeks following infection with SARS-CoV-2. Among the symptoms, neurocognitive and psychiatric sequelae, including attention and memory alterations, as well as anxiety and depression symptoms, have become major targets of current healthcare providers given the significant public health impact. In this context, assessment tools play a crucial role in the early screening of cognitive alterations due to Long COVID. Among others, the general cognitive assessment tools, such as the Montreal Cognitive assessment, and more specific ones, including the State Trait Inventory of Cognitive Fatigue and the Digit Span, may be of help in investigating the main neurocognitive alterations. Moreover, appropriate neurorehabilitative programs using specific methods and techniques (conventional and/or advanced) through a multidisciplinary team are required to treat COVID-19-related cognitive and behavioral abnormalities. In this narrative review, we sought to describe the main neurocognitive and psychiatric symptoms as well as to provide some clinical advice for the assessment and treatment of Long COVID.
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Haykal MA, Menkes DL. The Clinical Neurophysiology of COVID-19- Direct Infection, Long-Term Sequelae and Para-Immunization responses: A literature review. Clin Neurophysiol Pract 2022; 8:3-11. [PMID: 36275861 PMCID: PMC9574576 DOI: 10.1016/j.cnp.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic resulting from the SARS-CoV-2 virus is in its third year. There is continuously evolving information regarding its pathophysiology and its effects on the nervous system. Clinical neurophysiology techniques are commonly employed to assess for neuroanatomical localization and/or defining the spectrum of neurological illness. There is an evolving body of literature delineating the effects of the SARS-CoV-2 virus on the nervous system as well as para-immunization responses to vaccination against this virus. This review focuses on the use of neurophysiological diagnostic modalities in the evaluation of potential acute and long-term neurological complications in patients that experience direct infection with SARS-CoV-2 and analyzes those reports of para-immunization responses to vaccination against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The neurophysiological modalities to be discussed include electroencephalography (EEG), evoked potentials (EPs), nerve conduction studies and electromyography (EMG/NCV), autonomic function tests, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and Transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD).
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Frontera JA, Thorpe LE, Simon NM, de Havenon A, Yaghi S, Sabadia SB, Yang D, Lewis A, Melmed K, Balcer LJ, Wisniewski T, Galetta SL. Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 symptom phenotypes and therapeutic strategies: A prospective, observational study. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275274. [PMID: 36174032 PMCID: PMC9521913 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) includes a heterogeneous group of patients with variable symptomatology, who may respond to different therapeutic interventions. Identifying phenotypes of PASC and therapeutic strategies for different subgroups would be a major step forward in management. METHODS In a prospective cohort study of patients hospitalized with COVID-19, 12-month symptoms and quantitative outcome metrics were collected. Unsupervised hierarchical cluster analyses were performed to identify patients with: (1) similar symptoms lasting ≥4 weeks after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and (2) similar therapeutic interventions. Logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate the association of these symptom and therapy clusters with quantitative 12-month outcome metrics (modified Rankin Scale, Barthel Index, NIH NeuroQoL). RESULTS Among 242 patients, 122 (50%) reported ≥1 PASC symptom (median 3, IQR 1-5) lasting a median of 12-months (range 1-15) post-COVID diagnosis. Cluster analysis generated three symptom groups: Cluster1 had few symptoms (most commonly headache); Cluster2 had many symptoms including high levels of anxiety and depression; and Cluster3 primarily included shortness of breath, headache and cognitive symptoms. Cluster1 received few therapeutic interventions (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.1-5.9), Cluster2 received several interventions, including antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications and psychological therapy (OR 15.7, 95% CI 4.1-59.7) and Cluster3 primarily received physical and occupational therapy (OR 3.1, 95%CI 1.3-7.1). The most severely affected patients (Symptom Cluster 2) had higher rates of disability (worse modified Rankin scores), worse NeuroQoL measures of anxiety, depression, fatigue and sleep disorder, and a higher number of stressors (all P<0.05). 100% of those who received a treatment strategy that included psychiatric therapies reported symptom improvement, compared to 97% who received primarily physical/occupational therapy, and 83% who received few interventions (P = 0.042). CONCLUSIONS We identified three clinically relevant PASC symptom-based phenotypes, which received different therapeutic interventions with varying response rates. These data may be helpful in tailoring individual treatment programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A. Frontera
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Lorna E. Thorpe
- Department of Population Health, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Naomi M. Simon
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Adam de Havenon
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Shadi Yaghi
- Department of Neurology, Brown University School of Medicine, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Sakinah B. Sabadia
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Dixon Yang
- Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian, Columbia Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ariane Lewis
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kara Melmed
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Laura J. Balcer
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Steven L. Galetta
- Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
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