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Kumar M, Kumari N, Thakur N, Bhatia SK, Saratale GD, Ghodake G, Mistry BM, Alavilli H, Kishor DS, Du X, Chung SM. A Comprehensive Overview on the Production of Vaccines in Plant-Based Expression Systems and the Scope of Plant Biotechnology to Combat against SARS-CoV-2 Virus Pandemics. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1213. [PMID: 34203729 PMCID: PMC8232254 DOI: 10.3390/plants10061213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Many pathogenic viral pandemics have caused threats to global health; the COVID-19 pandemic is the latest. Its transmission is growing exponentially all around the globe, putting constraints on the health system worldwide. A novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), causes this pandemic. Many candidate vaccines are available at this time for COVID-19, and there is a massive international race underway to procure as many vaccines as possible for each country. However, due to heavy global demand, there are strains in global vaccine production. The use of a plant biotechnology-based expression system for vaccine production also represents one part of this international effort, which is to develop plant-based heterologous expression systems, virus-like particles (VLPs)-vaccines, antiviral drugs, and a rapid supply of antigen-antibodies for detecting kits and plant origin bioactive compounds that boost the immunity and provide tolerance to fight against the virus infection. This review will look at the plant biotechnology platform that can provide the best fight against this global pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manu Kumar
- Department of Life Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea; (M.K.); (D.S.K.); (X.D.)
| | - Nisha Kumari
- Department of Radiology, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea;
| | - Nishant Thakur
- Department of Hospital Pathology, Yeouido St. Mary’s Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 10, 63-ro, Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul 07345, Korea;
| | - Shashi Kant Bhatia
- Department of Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, Konkuk University, 1 Hwayang-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Korea;
| | - Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea; (G.D.S.); (B.M.M.)
| | - Gajanan Ghodake
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea;
| | - Bhupendra M. Mistry
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea; (G.D.S.); (B.M.M.)
| | - Hemasundar Alavilli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea;
| | - D. S. Kishor
- Department of Life Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea; (M.K.); (D.S.K.); (X.D.)
| | - Xueshi Du
- Department of Life Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea; (M.K.); (D.S.K.); (X.D.)
| | - Sang-Min Chung
- Department of Life Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 10326, Korea; (M.K.); (D.S.K.); (X.D.)
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Haer M, Strahlendorf K, Payne J, Jung R, Xiao E, Mirabel C, Rahman N, Kowal P, Gemmiti G, Cronin JT, Gable T, Park-Lee K, Drolet-Vives K, Balmer M, Kirkitadze M. PAT solutions to monitor adsorption of Tetanus Toxoid with aluminum adjuvants. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2021; 198:114013. [PMID: 33713883 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The focus of this study was to examine the small-scale adsorption process of Tetanus Toxoid (TT) as a model protein antigen to aluminum phosphate (AlPO4) and aluminum oxyhydroxide (AlOOH) adjuvants with real-time monitoring by in-line ReactIR™, ParticleTrack™ based on Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM) and EasyViewer™ probes. The adsorption process of AlPO4 and AlOOH with TT using was monitored in the small-scale reactors. Conformational changes in TT were monitored using in-line infrared probe ReactIR, whereas particle formation associated with protein adsorption were measured by particle size, count, and imaging tools, such as ParticleTrack with FBRM and EasyViewer probes. ParticleTrack distribution results and kinetic measurements were also supported by observations made using EasyViewer. In addition to EasyMax, BioBLU reactor was also used for the adsorption experiments. ReactIR with ATR-Fiber probe was effectively able to monitor adsorption progress of TT to AlOOH and to AlPO4. ReactIR, EasyViewer, and ParticleTrack provided detailed mechanistic and kinetic information for reaction of TT with AlPO4 and AlOOH. These in-situ measurements revealed a possible multi-step process for TT to AlPO4 which may be an indication of antigen adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjit Haer
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Jessie Payne
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ryan Jung
- Bioprocess Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Canada
| | - Emily Xiao
- Bioprocess Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Nausheen Rahman
- Bioprocess Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Canada
| | - Przemek Kowal
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Canada
| | | | | | - Tyler Gable
- Mettler Toledo AutoChem Inc., Columbia, MD, USA
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Franco AR, Peri F. Developing New Anti-Tuberculosis Vaccines: Focus on Adjuvants. Cells 2021; 10:cells10010078. [PMID: 33466444 PMCID: PMC7824815 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) that sits in the top 10 leading causes of death in the world today and is the current leading cause of death among infectious diseases. Although there is a licensed vaccine against TB, the Mycobacterium bovis bacilli Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, it has several limitations, namely its high variability of efficacy in the population and low protection against pulmonary tuberculosis. New vaccines for TB are needed. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers the development and implementation of new TB vaccines to be a priority. Subunit vaccines are promising candidates since they can overcome safety concerns and optimize antigen targeting. Nevertheless, these vaccines need adjuvants in their formulation in order to increase immunogenicity, decrease the needed antigen dose, ensure a targeted delivery and optimize the antigens delivery and interaction with the immune cells. This review aims to focus on adjuvants being used in new formulations of TB vaccines, namely candidates already in clinical trials and others in preclinical development. Although no correlates of protection are defined, most research lines in the field of TB vaccination focus on T-helper 1 (Th1) type of response, namely polyfunctional CD4+ cells expressing simultaneously IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2 cytokines, and also Th17 responses. Accordingly, most of the adjuvants reviewed here are able to promote such responses. In the future, it might be advantageous to consider a wider array of immune parameters to better understand the role of adjuvants in TB immunity and establish correlates of protection.
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Duprez J, Kalbfleisch K, Deshmukh S, Payne J, Haer M, Williams W, Durowoju I, Kirkitadze M. Structure and compositional analysis of aluminum oxyhydroxide adsorbed pertussis vaccine. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2020; 19:439-447. [PMID: 33489011 PMCID: PMC7804342 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2020.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The goal of this study was to characterize an acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap) containing genetically modified pertussis toxin (gdPT) and TLR agonist adsorbed to AlOOH adjuvant. METHODS Several analytical tools including nanoDSF, FTIR, and LD were used to examine the conformation of novel gdPT and the composition of AlOOH adjuvant formulations adsorbed to pertussis vaccine. RESULTS DLS particle size results were 9.3 nm and 320 nm for gdPT. For pertussis toxoid (PT), the DLS particle size results were larger at ~440 nm. After adsorption to AlOOH, which was driven by the protein antigen, the size distribution ranged from 3.5 to 22 µm. Two thermal transitions were observed by DSC for gdPT at 70 °C and 102 °C. The main thermal transition was confirmed to be at 72 °C by nanoDSF. All three vaccine formulations showed one thermal transition: Tdap-AlOOH had a thermal transition of 74.6 °C, Tdap-E6020-AlOOH had a thermal transition at 74.2 °C, and Tdap-CpG-AlOOH had a thermal transition at 77.0 °C. Analysis of pertussis toxin (PTx) and gdPT was also performed by FTIR spectroscopy for the purpose of comparison. The second derivative of the FTIR spectra showed an additional feature for PTx at 1685 cm-1 compared to gdPT. The antigen's amide I and II regions were largely unchanged after adsorption to AlOOH adjuvant as shown by FTIR, suggesting that there were no significant changes in the secondary structure. CONCLUSION gdPT conformation was successfully characterized using an array of analytical methods. All three Tdap formulations have similar thermal stability as shown by nanoDSF, similar size distribution as shown by LD, and similar overall secondary structure as shown by FTIR. In-line particle sizing and IR can be used as in-process characterization tools to monitor consistency of adsorbed vaccine and to confirm product identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Duprez
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kristen Kalbfleisch
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, and Paediatrics, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Sasmit Deshmukh
- SGS Canada, Biopharmaceutical Services, 6490 Vipond Drive, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessie Payne
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Manjit Haer
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Wayne Williams
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ibrahim Durowoju
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marina Kirkitadze
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Troy A, Esparza-Gonzalez SC, Bartek A, Creissen E, Izzo L, Izzo AA. Pulmonary mucosal immunity mediated through CpG provides adequate protection against pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in the mouse model. A role for type I interferon. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2020; 123:101949. [PMID: 32741537 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2020.101949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) 9 stimulation is required for induction of potent immune responses against pathogen invasion. The use of unmethylated CpG as adjuvants in vaccines provides an excellent means of stimulating adaptive immunity. Our data demonstrate that CpG-C provided prolonged immune responses in the mouse model of tuberculosis when formulated with liposomes and the Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigen ESAT-6. A reduction in the mycobacterial burden was best achieved when administered as an intranasal vaccine and was dependent on type I interferon (IFN). There was a significant difference between CpG-C inoculated wild type and IFN-αR1-/- mice, indicating that type I IFN plays a role in the immune response following CpG-C inoculation. Further analysis showed that early NK cell presence was not an absolute requirement, although elevated IFN-γ levels were detected in the lungs of mice within 48 h. The reduction in mycobacterial burden was MyD88-independent as CpG-C inoculated MyD88-/- mice showed comparable mycobacterial burdens to wild type mice with no detriment due to the lack of MyD88. Together our data show that pulmonary stimulation of TLR9 bearing antigen presenting cells resulted in the induction of protective immunity against M. tuberculosis infection that was dependent on type I IFN signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Troy
- Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Sandra C Esparza-Gonzalez
- Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Alicia Bartek
- Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Elizabeth Creissen
- Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Linda Izzo
- Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Angelo A Izzo
- Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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Mei C, Deshmukh S, Cronin J, Cong S, Chapman D, Lazaris N, Sampaleanu L, Schacht U, Drolet-Vives K, Ore M, Morin S, Carpick B, Balmer M, Kirkitadze M. Aluminum Phosphate Vaccine Adjuvant: Analysis of Composition and Size Using Off-Line and In-Line Tools. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2019; 17:1184-1194. [PMID: 31528298 PMCID: PMC6739432 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2019.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Aluminum-based adjuvants including aluminum phosphate (AlPO4) are commonly used in many human vaccines to enhance immune response. The interaction between the antigen and adjuvant, including the physical adsorption of antigen, may play a role in vaccine immunogenicity and is a useful marker of vaccine product quality and consistency. Thus, it is important to study the physicochemical properties of AlPO4, such as particle size and chemical composition. Control of the vaccine adjuvant throughout the manufacturing process, including raw materials and the intermediate and final product stages, can be effectively achieved through monitoring of such key product attributes to help ensure product quality. METHODS This study focuses on the compositional analysis of AlPO4 adjuvant at the intermediate and final manufacturing stages using the off-line methods Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), and the in-line method Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR). Particle size distribution of AlPO4 was measured off-line using Laser diffraction (LD) and in-line using Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM®). RESULTS There was no observable difference in size distribution between the intermediate and final stage AlPO4 by off-line and in-line analysis, in both small- or large-scale production samples. Consistent peak shifts were observed in off-line and in-line infrared (IR) spectroscopy as well as off-line XPS for both small- and large-scale AlPO4 manufacturing runs. Additionally, IR spectroscopy and FBRM® for size distribution were used as in-line process analytical technology (PAT) to monitor reaction progress in real-time during small-scale AlPO4 manufacturing from raw materials. The small-scale adsorption process of a model protein antigen (Tetanus toxoid) to AlPO4 adjuvant was also monitored by in-line ReactIR probe. CONCLUSION This study demonstrated that in-line PAT can be used to monitor particle size and chemical composition for the various stages of adjuvant manufacturing from raw materials through intermediate to final adjuvant product stage. Similar approaches can be utilized to help assess lot-to-lot consistency during adjuvant manufacturing and vaccine product development. Moreover, the use of in-line PAT is highly conductive to advanced manufacturing strategies such as real-time product release testing and automated processes of the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Mei
- Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sasmit Deshmukh
- Sanofi Pasteur, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- SGS Canada, Biopharmaceutical Services, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Shuxin Cong
- Mettler Toledo AutoChem Inc, Columbia, MD, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Moriam Ore
- York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Kalbfleisch K, Deshmukh S, Mei C, Ore M, Williams W, Durowoju I, Duprez J, Morin S, Carpick B, Kirkitadze M. Identity, Structure and Compositional Analysis of Aluminum Phosphate Adsorbed Pediatric Quadrivalent and Pentavalent Vaccines. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2018; 17:14-20. [PMID: 30581540 PMCID: PMC6297905 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The goal of this study is to set an empirical baseline to map the structure-function relation of the antigens from the commercialized vaccine products. METHODS To study the structural changes of protein antigens after adsorption several analytical tools including DLS, FTIR, Fluorescence, LD, and SEM have been used. RESULTS All antigens have shown wide range of hydrodynamic diameter from 7 nm to 182 nm. Upon adjuvantation, the size distribution has become narrow, ranging from 10 to 12 μm, and has been driven by the derived diameter of aluminum phosphate (AlPO4) adjuvant. Further to examine size and morphology of adsorbed antigens, SEM has been used. The SEM results have demonstrated that the AlPO4 adjuvant suspension and adsorbed proteins consist of submicron particles that form a continuous porous surface. Diphtheria Toxoid (DT), Tetanus Toxoid (TT), and chemically-modified Filamentous Haemagglutinin (FHA) have shown surface adsorption to AlPO4. Secondary structure alpha-helix and beta-sheet content of DT and TT has increased after adsorption to AlPO4 adjuvant as shown by FTIR, whereas no significant changes were noted for other protein antigens. The results from Intrinsic Fluorescence have shown a structural rearrangement in DT and TT, consistent with the FTIR results. Multivalent vaccine product identity has been determined by FTIR as unique fingerprint spectrum. CONCLUSION The globular proteins such as DT and TT have shown changes in secondary structure upon adsorption to AlPO4, whereas fibrillar protein FHA has not been affected by adsorption. FTIR can be used as a lean technique to confirm product identity at different manufacturing sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Kalbfleisch
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sasmit Deshmukh
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- SGS Canada, Biopharmaceutical Services, 6490 Vipond Drive, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
| | - Carmen Mei
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Moriam Ore
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Wayne Williams
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ibrahim Durowoju
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessica Duprez
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sylvie Morin
- Department of Chemistry, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bruce Carpick
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marina Kirkitadze
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur Canada, 1755 Steeles Avenue West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Khoshnood S, Heidary M, Haeili M, Drancourt M, Darban-Sarokhalil D, Nasiri MJ, Lohrasbi V. Novel vaccine candidates against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 120:180-188. [PMID: 30098365 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is now among the top ten causes of mortality worldwide being resulted in 1.7 million deaths including 0.4 million among people with HIV in 2016. The Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) is the only available TB vaccine which fails to provide consistent protection against pulmonary TB in adults and adolescents despite being efficacious at protecting infants and young children from the most severe, often deadly forms of TB disease. To achieve the goal of global TB elimination by 2050 we will need new interventions including more improved vaccines that are effective in adult individuals who have not been infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis as well as latently infected or immunocompromised subjects. In recent decades, multiple new vaccine candidates including whole cell vaccines, adjuvanted proteins, and vectored subunit vaccines have entered into the clinical trials. These new TB vaccines are hoped to provide encouraging safety and immunogenicity under various conditions including prevention of TB disease in adolescents and adults, as BCG replacement/boosters, or as therapeutic vaccines to reduce the duration of TB therapy. In this review, we will discuss the status of novel TB vaccine candidates currently under development in preclinical or clinical phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Khoshnood
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mohsen Heidary
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mehri Haeili
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Michel Drancourt
- Aix-Marseille Univ., IRD, MEPHI, Institut Hospital-Universitaire (IHU) Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - Davood Darban-Sarokhalil
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javad Nasiri
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Vahid Lohrasbi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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