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Qi M, Gai R, Gao H. The effect of chronic academic stress on intentional forgetting. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:433-445. [PMID: 37042464 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231171481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated whether chronic academic stress could affect the directed forgetting (DF) process. Both the stress group (undergoing preparation for a major academic examination) and the control group performed a DF task. A forgetting cue was presented after a to-be-forgotten (TBF) word, whereas no cue appeared after a to-be-remembered (TBR) item in the study phase. An old/new recognition test was used in the test phase. The results showed that (1) the stress group showed a higher level of self-reported stress, state anxiety, negative affect, and decreased cortisol awakening response (CAR) compared with the control group, suggesting a higher level of stress for the stress group. (2) Both groups showed superior recognition performance of TBR than TBF items, suggesting a DF effect. (3) The stress group showed inferior recognition performance of TBF items and an enhanced DF effect compared with the control group. These results demonstrated that the intentional memory control process might be enhanced under chronic academic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingming Qi
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Ru Gai
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Heming Gao
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
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2
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Costanzi M, Cianfanelli B, Santirocchi A, Lasaponara S, Spataro P, Rossi-Arnaud C, Cestari V. Forgetting Unwanted Memories: Active Forgetting and Implications for the Development of Psychological Disorders. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11040241. [PMID: 33810436 PMCID: PMC8066077 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11040241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrusive memories are a common feature of many psychopathologies, and suppression-induced forgetting of unwanted memories appears as a critical ability to preserve mental health. In recent years, biological and cognitive studies converged in revealing that forgetting is due to active processes. Recent neurobiological studies provide evidence on the active role of main neurotransmitter systems in forgetting, suggesting that the brain actively works to suppress retrieval of unwanted memories. On the cognitive side, there is evidence that voluntary and involuntary processes (here termed "intentional" and "incidental" forgetting, respectively) contribute to active forgetting. In intentional forgetting, an inhibitory control mechanism suppresses awareness of unwanted memories at encoding or retrieval. In incidental forgetting, retrieval practice of some memories involuntarily suppresses the retrieval of other related memories. In this review we describe recent findings on deficits in active forgetting observed in psychopathologies, like post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Moreover, we report studies in which the role of neurotransmitter systems, known to be involved in the pathogenesis of mental disorders, has been investigated in active forgetting paradigms. The possibility that biological and cognitive mechanisms of active forgetting could be considered as hallmarks of the early onset of psychopathologies is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Costanzi
- Department of Human Sciences, Lumsa University, 00193 Rome, Italy; (B.C.); (S.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Beatrice Cianfanelli
- Department of Human Sciences, Lumsa University, 00193 Rome, Italy; (B.C.); (S.L.)
| | - Alessandro Santirocchi
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (A.S.); (C.R.-A.); (V.C.)
| | - Stefano Lasaponara
- Department of Human Sciences, Lumsa University, 00193 Rome, Italy; (B.C.); (S.L.)
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (A.S.); (C.R.-A.); (V.C.)
| | - Pietro Spataro
- Department of Economy, Universitas Mercatorum, 00100 Rome, Italy;
| | - Clelia Rossi-Arnaud
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (A.S.); (C.R.-A.); (V.C.)
| | - Vincenzo Cestari
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (A.S.); (C.R.-A.); (V.C.)
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3
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Yang F, Fu M, Huang N, Ahmed F, Shahid M, Zhang B, Guo J, Lodder P. Network analysis of COVID-19-related PTSD symptoms in China: the similarities and differences between the general population and PTSD sub-population. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2021; 12:1997181. [PMID: 34900121 PMCID: PMC8654407 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1997181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Prevalent Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) negatively affected individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using network analyses, this study explored the construct of PTSD symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic in China to identify similarities and differences in PTSD symptom network connectivity between the general Chinese population and individuals reporting PTSD. METHODS We conducted an online survey recruiting 2858 Chinese adults. PTSD symptoms were measured using the PCL-5 and PTSD was determined according to the DSM-5 criteria. RESULTS In the general population, self-destructive/reckless behaviours were on average the most strongly connected to other PTSD symptoms in the network. The five strongest positive connections were found between 1) avoidance of thoughts and avoidance of reminders, 2) concentration difficulties and sleep disturbance, 3) negative beliefs and negative trauma-related emotions, 4) irritability/anger and self-destructive/reckless behaviours, and 5) hypervigilance and exaggerated startle responses. Besides, negative connections were found between intrusive thoughts and trauma-related amnesia and between intrusive thoughts and self-destructive/reckless behaviours. Among individuals reporting PTSD, symptoms such as flashbacks and self-destructive/reckless behaviours were on average most strongly connected to other PTSD symptoms in the network. The five strongest positive connections were found between 1) concentration difficulty and sleep disturbance, 2) intrusive thoughts and emotional cue reactivity, 3) negative beliefs and negative trauma-related emotions, 4) irritability/anger and self-destructive/reckless behaviour, and 5) detachment and restricted affect. In addition, a negative connection was found between intrusive thoughts and self-destructive/reckless behaviours. CONCLUSION Our results indicate similarly positive connections between concentration difficulty and sleep disturbance, negative beliefs and negative trauma-related emotions, and irritability/anger and self-destructive/reckless behaviours in the general and PTSD-reported populations. We argue that self-destructive/reckless behaviours are a core symptom of COVID-19 related PTSD, worthy of more attention in future psychiatric programmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Yang
- Department of Health Policy and Management, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Mingqi Fu
- Center for Social Security Studies, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P.R. China
| | - Ning Huang
- Department of Health Policy and Management, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Farooq Ahmed
- Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.,Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- School of insurance and Economics, University of international business and economics, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Neurology and ICCTR Biostatistics and Research Design Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jing Guo
- Department of Health Policy and Management, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Paul Lodder
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
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Wakefulness impairs selective consolidation of relevant trauma-associated memories resulting in more frequent intrusions. Behav Res Ther 2020; 136:103776. [PMID: 33276275 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies show that sleep reduces intrusive memories after analog trauma. This effect is assumed to be caused by sleep's impact on memory consolidation. However, the underlying processes of this phenomenon have not been uncovered. Thus, the current study investigates the hypothesis that sleep reduces intrusive memories by supporting the selective consolidation of relevant memories. Seventy-five participants were exposed to traumatic picture stories before nocturnal sleep or wakefulness during daytime. Memory for relevant and irrelevant trauma-associated stimuli was assessed prior to and after the retention period. Consistent with the hypothesis, results demonstrate reduced memory loss for relevant as opposed to irrelevant trauma-associated stimuli after sleep but not after wakefulness. Moreover, an incremental retention benefit for relevant trauma-associated stimuli was negatively correlated with the number of intrusive trauma memories after wakefulness. These results suggest that lack of sleep impairs selective gating of relevant trauma-associated memories, thereby enhancing intrusion development after trauma.
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Delaney PF, Barden EP, Smith WG, Wisco BE. What can directed forgetting tell us about clinical populations? Clin Psychol Rev 2020; 82:101926. [PMID: 33011552 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews and critically assesses the implications of directed forgetting (DF) research on clinical populations. We begin by reviewing the typical methods and results of the item method and list method directed forgetting procedures and provide best practice recommendations for future studies using clinical populations. Next, we note that DF was often interpreted as being due to inhibition, and when clinical populations showed impaired directed forgetting, it was treated as evidence in inhibitory control difficulties. However, inhibition may not be the cause of DF effects, based on current understanding of these cognitive tasks. We instead suggest that item method DF is tied to attentional control, which might include inhibitory mechanisms (or might not). In contrast, list method DF is tied to two forms of memory control: control of mental context (indicated by effective forgetting of List 1), and changes in the strategies used to remember (indicated by better learning of List 2). We review the current state of the clinical DF literature, assess its strength based on our best practice recommendations, and call for more research when warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter F Delaney
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States of America.
| | - Eileen P Barden
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University (SUNY), United States of America
| | - Wyatt G Smith
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States of America
| | - Blair E Wisco
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States of America
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Tudorache AC, El-Hage W, Tapia G, Goutaudier N, Kalenzaga S, Bouazzaoui B, Jaafari N, Clarys D. Inhibitory control of threat remembering in PTSD. Memory 2019; 27:1404-1414. [PMID: 31488044 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2019.1662053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Intrusive traumatic recollections suggest an inability in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) to control and notably to inhibit memories for trauma-related information. Supported by inhibitory deficits found on experimental settings in PTSD, memory functioning and memory biases in the disorder were usually explained through inhibitory and control deficits in the processing of trauma-related information. The present study aimed to directly assess this hypothesis by investigating memory control abilities for emotional information in PTSD. For this purpose, 34 patients diagnosed with PTSD were compared to 37 non-PTSD controls on an item-cued directed forgetting paradigm for emotional words combined with a Remember/Know recognition procedure. Results revealed enhanced amounts of Remember recognitions for trauma-related words in PTSD. Moreover, we replicated findings of memory control impairments in the disorder. However, such impairments only occurred for non-trauma-related words. Accordingly, it appeared that PTSD patients presented preserved memory control abilities for trauma-related words, at the expenses of other emotional valences. Surprisingly, PTSD patients presented a preserved ability to control and notably to inhibit their memory functioning for trauma-related material. In addition to potential theoretical and clinical relevance, these results are discussed in the light of resource reallocation hypotheses and vigilant-avoidant theories of information processing in PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrei-Cristian Tudorache
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, UMR CNRS 7295, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours , Poitiers, Tours , France
| | - Wissam El-Hage
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Université de Tours, CHRU de Tours, Inserm , Tours , France
| | - Géraldine Tapia
- Laboratoire de Psychologie EA4139, Université de Bordeaux , Bordeaux , France
| | - Nelly Goutaudier
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, UMR CNRS 7295, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours , Poitiers, Tours , France
| | - Sandrine Kalenzaga
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, UMR CNRS 7295, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours , Poitiers, Tours , France
| | - Badiâa Bouazzaoui
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, UMR CNRS 7295, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours , Poitiers, Tours , France
| | - Nemat Jaafari
- Unité de recherche clinique intersectorielle en psychiatrie à vocation régionale Pierre Deniker du Centre Hospitalier Henri Laborit, Inserm CIC-P 1402, Inserm U 1084 Experimental and Clinical Neurosciences Laboratory, Université de Poitiers, CHU Poitiers, Groupement De Recherche CNRS 3557 , Poitiers , France
| | - David Clarys
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, UMR CNRS 7295, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours , Poitiers, Tours , France
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Sullivan DR, Marx B, Chen MS, Depue BE, Hayes SM, Hayes JP. Behavioral and neural correlates of memory suppression in PTSD. J Psychiatr Res 2019; 112:30-37. [PMID: 30844595 PMCID: PMC6440538 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has shown that healthy individuals can actively suppress emotional memories through recruitment of the lateral prefrontal cortex. By contrast, individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently experience unwanted memories of their traumatic experiences, even when making explicit efforts to avoid them. However, little is known regarding the behavioral and neural effects of memory suppression among individuals with PTSD. We examined memory suppression associated with PTSD using the Think-No-Think paradigm in an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. We studied three groups: PTSD (n = 16), trauma exposure without PTSD (n = 19), and controls (i.e., no trauma exposure or PTSD; n = 13). There was a main effect of memory suppression such that participants remembered fewer face-picture pairs during the suppress condition than the remember condition. However, trauma-exposed participants (regardless of PTSD status) were less likely to successfully suppress memory than non-trauma-exposed controls. Neuroimaging data revealed that trauma-exposed individuals showed reduced activation in the right middle frontal gyrus during memory suppression. These results suggest that trauma exposure is associated with neural and behavioral disruptions in memory suppression and point to the possibility that difficulty in active suppression of memories may be just one of several likely factors contributing to the development of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle R. Sullivan
- National Center for PTSD, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brian Marx
- National Center for PTSD, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - May S. Chen
- Department of Health Behavior, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Brendan E. Depue
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Louisville, KY, USA,Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Scott M. Hayes
- Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA,Neuroimaging Research for Veterans Center, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA USA,Memory Disorders Research Center, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA USA
| | - Jasmeet P. Hayes
- National Center for PTSD, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA,Neuroimaging Research for Veterans Center, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA USA
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Alderson-Day B, Smailes D, Moffatt J, Mitrenga K, Moseley P, Fernyhough C. Intentional inhibition but not source memory is related to hallucination-proneness and intrusive thoughts in a university sample. Cortex 2019; 113:267-278. [PMID: 30716609 PMCID: PMC6459394 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 12/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Proneness to unusual perceptual states - such as auditory or visual hallucinations - has been proposed to exist on a continuum in the general population, but whether there is a cognitive basis for such a continuum remains unclear. Intentional cognitive inhibition (the ability to wilfully control thoughts and memories) is one mechanism that has been linked to auditory hallucination susceptibility, but most evidence to date has been drawn from clinical samples only. Moreover, such a link has yet to be demonstrated over and above relations to other cognitive skills (source monitoring) and cognitive states (intrusive thoughts) that often correlate with both inhibition and hallucinations. The present study deployed two tests of intentional inhibition ability - the Inhibition of Currently Irrelevant Memories (ICIM) task and Directed Forgetting (DF) task - and one test of source monitoring (a source memory task) to examine how cognitive task performance relates to self-reported i) auditory hallucination-proneness and ii) susceptibility to intrusive thoughts in a non-clinical student sample (N = 76). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to assess the independent and combined contributions of task performance to proneness scores. ICIM performance but not DF or source memory scores were significantly related to both hallucination-proneness and intrusive thoughts. Further analysis suggested that intrusive thoughts may mediate the link between intentional inhibition skills and auditory hallucination-proneness, suggesting a potential pathway from inhibition to perception via intrusions in cognition. The implications for studying cognitive mechanisms of hallucination and their role in "continuum" views of psychosis-like experiences are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Smailes
- Department of Psychology, University of Northumbria, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Jamie Moffatt
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK; School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Falmer, UK
| | - Kaja Mitrenga
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Peter Moseley
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK; Department of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
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9
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Auxéméry Y. Treatment of post-traumatic psychiatric disorders: A continuum of immediate, post-immediate and follow-up care mediated by specific psychotherapeutic principles. Clinical experience in French-speaking countries. Encephale 2018; 44:403-408. [PMID: 29887301 DOI: 10.1016/j.encep.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND People who witness a horrific event are at risk of suffering from acute psychological disorders, potentially leading to chronic post-traumatic symptoms and severe medico-psycho-social complications. Traumatised individuals suffer from psychological damage that is initially indescribable: they are often unable to ask for care in the immediate aftermath of an event. Afterwards, traumatic events and their post-traumatic consequences are still often hidden or minimised by patients for reasons linked to the disorder itself (inexpressibility, shame, depressive thoughts, fear of stigmatisation, etc.). The provision of the initial stage of care has a major impact on the long-term prognosis. Although official French recommendations remain vague, and scientific studies lack power, there is a developing professional consensus on practices, and developments in neurobiology are opening up new opportunities to validate them. OBJECTIVE Drawing upon our clinical experience and clinical principles provided by our mentors, our aim is to clarify the phases of psychotherapeutic treatment, and we describe three practices: immediate care ("defusing"), post-immediate care ("French debriefing" or "post-immediate psychotherapeutic intervention") and follow-up care ("deferred debriefing" and psychotherapy). Although the international literature considers these phases as separate, here we describe a continuity of talking therapies that support long-term remission. RESULTS The effectiveness of the combination of immediate, post-immediate and follow-up care has been confirmed by events surrounding the recent Paris and Nice attacks. Specific psychotherapeutic principles are unrelated to a particular school of psychotherapy (notably cognitive and behavioural therapies, analytical therapies, various forms of hypnosis, and eye-movement therapies, etc.). Instead, they refer to specific principles that are effective in the treatment of post-traumatic psychiatric disorders. By helping the individual to verbalise their experience, talking re-establishes dissociated psychological functions. A process of reconsolidation enables sensory memory to be integrated into verbal memory. Supported by psychotherapy, language can be used to discover, or construct, a new sense of meaning for the individual. CONCLUSION A single session of post-immediate or deferred debriefing has been found to have a miraculous effect on post-traumatic symptoms, confirmed by follow-up. When disorders are chronic and complex, however, treatment can last several months or years. In each case, although certain therapeutic principles are key, other psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments should be adapted to the individual's clinical situation, and the symptoms they present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann Auxéméry
- Service médical de psychologie clinique appliquée à l'aéronautique, hôpital d'instruction des armées Percy, 1, rue du Lieutenant-Raoul-Batany, 92190 Clamart, France.
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10
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Nejati V, Salehinejad MA, Sabayee A. Impaired working memory updating affects memory for emotional and non-emotional materials the same way: evidence from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cogn Process 2017; 19:53-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s10339-017-0837-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Huang S, Gan Y. Memory as a cognitive representation of post-traumatic growth. ANXIETY STRESS AND COPING 2017; 31:59-68. [PMID: 28799784 DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2017.1364730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Previous studies on traumatic memory have primarily focused on the correlation between traumatic symptoms and negative memories, often utilizing the directed forgetting paradigm. Different from previous research, this study aimed to examine the correlation of post-traumatic growth (PTG) and positive memories, with the objective to explore the directed forgetting effect of positive material and its relationship with PTG. DESIGN A 2 (PTG level: high vs. low) × 2 (instructions: To-Be-Forgotten vs. To-Be-Remembered) × 3 (word valence: positive vs. neutral vs. trauma related) mixed-factorial-designed experiment was applied. METHODS Participants were 46 senior high-school students who had survived in the Sichuan earthquake in 2008. Participants were divided into two groups based on PTG: high (n = 24) and low (n = 22). Both groups were presented, and asked to recall, three word categories (positive, trauma-related, and neutral) following the directed forgetting paradigm. RESULTS A mixed-design factorial ANOVA yielded a significant interaction effect of word valence and PTG group, with the high-PTG group recalling more positive words than the low-PTG group. CONCLUSIONS This was the first study to identify a key cognitive process of PTG by integrating the directed forgetting paradigm into an investigation of PTG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhui Huang
- a School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health , Peking University , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Yiqun Gan
- a School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health , Peking University , Beijing , People's Republic of China
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nørby
- Danish School of Education, Aarhus University, Copenhagen, Denmark
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13
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Jardri R, Hugdahl K, Hughes M, Brunelin J, Waters F, Alderson-Day B, Smailes D, Sterzer P, Corlett PR, Leptourgos P, Debbané M, Cachia A, Denève S. Are Hallucinations Due to an Imbalance Between Excitatory and Inhibitory Influences on the Brain? Schizophr Bull 2016; 42:1124-34. [PMID: 27261492 PMCID: PMC4988749 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbw075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
This review from the International Consortium on Hallucinations Research intends to question the pertinence of the excitatory-to-inhibitory (E/I) imbalance hypothesis as a model for hallucinations. A large number of studies suggest that subtle impairments of the E/I balance are involved in neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia. Emerging evidence also points to a role of the E/I balance in maintaining stable perceptual representations, suggesting it may be a plausible model for hallucinations. In support, hallucinations have been linked to inhibitory deficits as shown with impairment of gamma-aminobutyric acid transmission, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor plasticity, reductions in gamma-frequency oscillations, hyperactivity in sensory cortices, and cognitive inhibition deficits. However, the mechanisms by which E/I dysfunctions at the cellular level might relate to clinical symptoms and cognitive deficits remain unclear. Given recent data advances in the field of clinical neuroscience, it is now possible to conduct a synthesis of available data specifically related to hallucinations. These findings are integrated with the latest computational frameworks of hallucinations, and recommendations for future research are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renaud Jardri
- Univ Lille, CNRS UMR 9193, SCALab (psyCHIC Team) & CHU Lille, Psychiatry Department (CURE), Lille, France;
| | - Kenneth Hugdahl
- Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen; Department of Radiology, Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Matthew Hughes
- Brain & Psychological Sciences Centre, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jérôme Brunelin
- Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Réadaptation et en Intégration Sociale (CIRRIS), Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada; Université Lyon 1, INSERM U1028 & CNRS 5292, Lyon Neuroscience Research Centre (ΨR2 Team), Centre Hospitalier Le Vinatier, Lyon, France
| | - Flavie Waters
- School of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Western Australia, and Clinical Research Centre, Graylands Health Campus, North Metropolitan Area Health Service Mental Health, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | | | - Dave Smailes
- School of Health and Social Sciences, Leeds Trinity University, Leeds, UK
| | - Philipp Sterzer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité - Universtätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philip R Corlett
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT
| | - Pantelis Leptourgos
- Group for Neural Theory, INSERM U960, Institute of Cognitive Studies, École Normale Supérieure, Paris, France
| | - Martin Debbané
- Developmental Clinical Psychology Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Arnaud Cachia
- Laboratoire de Psychologie du Développement et de l'Éducation de l'Enfant, UMR 8240, CNRS & Université Paris-Descartes (Sorbonne-Paris-Cité), Paris, France
| | - Sophie Denève
- Group for Neural Theory, INSERM U960, Institute of Cognitive Studies, École Normale Supérieure, Paris, France
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Zwissler B, Schindler S, Fischer H, Plewnia C, Kissler JM. 'Forget me (not)?' - Remembering Forget-Items Versus Un-Cued Items in Directed Forgetting. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1741. [PMID: 26635657 PMCID: PMC4644810 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans need to be able to selectively control their memories. This capability is often investigated in directed forgetting (DF) paradigms. In item-method DF, individual items are presented and each is followed by either a forget- or remember-instruction. On a surprise test of all items, memory is then worse for to-be-forgotten items (TBF) compared to to-be-remembered items (TBR). This is thought to result mainly from selective rehearsal of TBR, although inhibitory mechanisms also appear to be recruited by this paradigm. Here, we investigate whether the mnemonic consequences of a forget instruction differ from the ones of incidental encoding, where items are presented without a specific memory instruction. Four experiments were conducted where un-cued items (UI) were interspersed and recognition performance was compared between TBR, TBF, and UI stimuli. Accuracy was encouraged via a performance-dependent monetary bonus. Experiments varied the number of items and their presentation speed and used either letter-cues or symbolic cues. Across all experiments, including perceptually fully counterbalanced variants, memory accuracy for TBF was reduced compared to TBR, but better than for UI. Moreover, participants made consistently fewer false alarms and used a very conservative response criterion when responding to TBF stimuli. Thus, the F-cue results in active processing and reduces false alarm rate, but this does not impair recognition memory beyond an un-cued baseline condition, where only incidental encoding occurs. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastian Zwissler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Neurophysiology and Interventional Neuropsychiatry, University Hospital Tübingen - University of Tübingen Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schindler
- Department of Psychology, University of Bielefeld Bielefeld, Germany ; Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology, University of Bielefeld Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Helena Fischer
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz Konstanz, Germany
| | - Christian Plewnia
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Neurophysiology and Interventional Neuropsychiatry, University Hospital Tübingen - University of Tübingen Tübingen, Germany
| | - Johanna M Kissler
- Department of Psychology, University of Bielefeld Bielefeld, Germany ; Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology, University of Bielefeld Bielefeld, Germany
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15
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Abstract
Is forgetting mostly a positive force in human life? On the surface, this seems to not be the case, and people often associate memory loss with frustration in their everyday lives. Yet, forgetting does not have exclusively negative consequences; it also serves valuable, indeed vital, functions. In this article, I review and reflect on evidence from various areas of research, and I argue that forgetting serves at least three broad purposes. First, it is part of emotion regulation, and it promotes subjective well-being by limiting access to negative memories and by reducing unpleasant affect. Forgetting thereby allows for positivity and painlessness. Second, it is involved in knowledge acquisition, and it provides a basis for obtaining semantic and procedural knowledge by allowing for abstraction and automatization. Third, forgetting is part of context attunement, and it orients information processing for the present and the future by facilitating environmental sensitivity and by ensuring that knowledge is current, which enables timeliness and updating. Overall, I suggest that forgetting helps people to be happy, well-structured, and context sensitive, and thereby that it serves fundamentally adaptive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nørby
- Danish School of Education, Aarhus University
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16
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Scott JC, Matt GE, Wrocklage KM, Crnich C, Jordan J, Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Schweinsburg BC. A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Bull 2015. [PMID: 25365762 DOI: 10.1037/a00389039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with regional alterations in brain structure and function that are hypothesized to contribute to symptoms and cognitive deficits associated with the disorder. We present here the first systematic meta-analysis of neurocognitive outcomes associated with PTSD to examine a broad range of cognitive domains and describe the profile of cognitive deficits, as well as modifying clinical factors and study characteristics. This report is based on data from 60 studies totaling 4,108 participants, including 1,779 with PTSD, 1,446 trauma-exposed comparison participants, and 895 healthy comparison participants without trauma exposure. Effect-size estimates were calculated using a mixed-effects meta-analysis for 9 cognitive domains: attention/working memory, executive functions, verbal learning, verbal memory, visual learning, visual memory, language, speed of information processing, and visuospatial abilities. Analyses revealed significant neurocognitive effects associated with PTSD, although these ranged widely in magnitude, with the largest effect sizes in verbal learning (d = -.62), speed of information processing (d = -.59), attention/working memory (d = -.50), and verbal memory (d =-.46). Effect-size estimates were significantly larger in treatment-seeking than community samples and in studies that did not exclude participants with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and effect sizes were affected by between-group IQ discrepancies and the gender composition of the PTSD groups. Our findings indicate that consideration of neuropsychological functioning in attention, verbal memory, and speed of information processing may have important implications for the effective clinical management of persons with PTSD. Results are further discussed in the context of cognitive models of PTSD and the limitations of this literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Cobb Scott
- VISN4 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center
| | - Georg E Matt
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University
| | | | | | - Jessica Jordan
- National Center for PTSD, VA Connecticut Healthcare System
| | | | - John H Krystal
- National Center for PTSD, VA Connecticut Healthcare System
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17
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Scott JC, Matt GE, Wrocklage KM, Crnich C, Jordan J, Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Schweinsburg BC. A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Bull 2015; 141:105-140. [PMID: 25365762 PMCID: PMC4293317 DOI: 10.1037/a0038039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with regional alterations in brain structure and function that are hypothesized to contribute to symptoms and cognitive deficits associated with the disorder. We present here the first systematic meta-analysis of neurocognitive outcomes associated with PTSD to examine a broad range of cognitive domains and describe the profile of cognitive deficits, as well as modifying clinical factors and study characteristics. This report is based on data from 60 studies totaling 4,108 participants, including 1,779 with PTSD, 1,446 trauma-exposed comparison participants, and 895 healthy comparison participants without trauma exposure. Effect-size estimates were calculated using a mixed-effects meta-analysis for 9 cognitive domains: attention/working memory, executive functions, verbal learning, verbal memory, visual learning, visual memory, language, speed of information processing, and visuospatial abilities. Analyses revealed significant neurocognitive effects associated with PTSD, although these ranged widely in magnitude, with the largest effect sizes in verbal learning (d = -.62), speed of information processing (d = -.59), attention/working memory (d = -.50), and verbal memory (d =-.46). Effect-size estimates were significantly larger in treatment-seeking than community samples and in studies that did not exclude participants with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and effect sizes were affected by between-group IQ discrepancies and the gender composition of the PTSD groups. Our findings indicate that consideration of neuropsychological functioning in attention, verbal memory, and speed of information processing may have important implications for the effective clinical management of persons with PTSD. Results are further discussed in the context of cognitive models of PTSD and the limitations of this literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Cobb Scott
- VISN4 Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center at the Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Georg E. Matt
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, 92182, USA
| | | | | | - Jessica Jordan
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA
| | - Steven M. Southwick
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - John H. Krystal
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510 USA
- Psychiatry Services, Yale-New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT 06510
| | - Brian C. Schweinsburg
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
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18
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION The sense of agency over thoughts is the experience of oneself qua agent of mental action. Those suffering certain psychotic symptoms are thought to have a deficient sense of agency. Here I seek to explain this sense of agency in terms of metacognition. METHOD I start with the proposal that the sense of agency is elicited by metacognitive monitoring representations that are used in the intentional inhibition of thoughts. I apply this model to verbal hallucinations and the like and examine the plausibility of this model explaining deficits associated with these symptoms. RESULTS By tying the sense of agency to metacognitive inhibition I propose that the loss of a sense of agency in certain psychotic symptoms is accompanied by a particular deficit in the patient's ability to control their own thinking. This is consistent with the experiences of those at high risk of developing hallucinations, who report more intrusive thoughts than controls. The model I present is able to explain why those at risk of developing verbal hallucinations and those suffering from verbal hallucinations have deficits in the intentional inhibition of thought. I defend this account from a possible objection by distinguishing the form of the intentional inhibition deficit displayed by those suffering verbal hallucination from that displayed by those suffering from orbital-frontal cortex lesions and posttraumatic stress disorder. CONCLUSION A plausible hypothesis is that the sense of agency over thoughts is elicited by the metacognitive monitoring representation used to intentionally inhibit thoughts. The deficit in the sense of agency over thoughts associated with certain psychotic symptoms could be explained by a failure to properly metacognitively monitor certain thought processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn Carruthers
- Macquarie Centre for Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Australia.
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19
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Hayes JP, VanElzakker MB, Shin LM. Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Front Integr Neurosci 2012; 6:89. [PMID: 23087624 PMCID: PMC3466464 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric syndrome that develops after exposure to terrifying and life-threatening events including warfare, motor-vehicle accidents, and physical and sexual assault. The emotional experience of psychological trauma can have long-term cognitive effects. The hallmark symptoms of PTSD involve alterations to cognitive processes such as memory, attention, planning, and problem solving, underscoring the detrimental impact that negative emotionality has on cognitive functioning. As such, an important challenge for PTSD researchers and treatment providers is to understand the dynamic interplay between emotion and cognition. Contemporary cognitive models of PTSD theorize that a preponderance of information processing resources are allocated toward threat detection and interpretation of innocuous stimuli as threatening, narrowing one's attentional focus at the expense of other cognitive operations. Decades of research have shown support for these cognitive models of PTSD using a variety of tasks and methodological approaches. The primary goal of this review is to summarize the latest neurocognitive and neuroimaging research of emotion-cognition interactions in PTSD. To directly assess the influence of emotion on cognition and vice versa, the studies reviewed employed challenge tasks that included both cognitive and emotional components. The findings provide evidence for memory and attention deficits in PTSD that are often associated with changes in functional brain activity. The results are reviewed to provide future directions for research that may direct better and more effective treatments for PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmeet P. Hayes
- National Center for PTSD, VA Boston Healthcare SystemBoston, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of MedicineBoston, MA, USA
| | - Michael B. VanElzakker
- Department of Psychology, Tufts UniversityMedford, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, The Massachusetts General HospitalBoston, MA, USA
| | - Lisa M. Shin
- Department of Psychology, Tufts UniversityMedford, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, The Massachusetts General HospitalBoston, MA, USA
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20
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Zwissler B, Hauswald A, Koessler S, Ertl V, Pfeiffer A, Wöhrmann C, Winkler N, Kissler J. Memory control in post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence from item method directed forgetting in civil war victims in Northern Uganda. Psychol Med 2012; 42:1283-1291. [PMID: 22011378 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291711002273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatized individuals and particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients are characterized by memory disturbances that suggest altered memory control. The present study investigated the issue using an item method, directed forgetting (DF) paradigm in 51 civil war victims in Uganda. All participants had been exposed to severe traumatic stress and 26 additionally suffered from PTSD. METHOD In an item cued, DF paradigm photographs were presented, each followed by an instruction to either remember or forget it. A recognition test for all initially presented photographs and thematically similar distracters followed. DF patterns were compared between the non-PTSD and the PTSD groups. Post-experimental ratings of picture valence and arousal were collected and correlated with DF. RESULTS Results revealed DF, that is, reduced recognition for 'to-be-forgotten' items in the non-PTSD but not in the PTSD group. Moreover, in the non-PTSD, but not in the PTSD group, false alarms were reduced for 'to-be-remembered' items. Finally, DF was reduced in those participants who rated the pictures as more arousing, the PTSD group giving, on average, higher arousal ratings. CONCLUSIONS Data indicate that DF is reduced in PTSD and that the reduction is related to stimulus arousal. Furthermore, individuals with PTSD are characterized by a more global encoding style than individuals without PTSD, reflected in a higher false alarm rate. In sum, traumatized individuals with (but not without) PTSD are impaired in their ability to selectively control episodic memory encoding. This impairment may contribute to clinical features of the disorder such as intrusions and flashbacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Zwissler
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
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21
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When can we choose to forget? An ERP study into item-method directed forgetting of emotional words. Brain Cogn 2012; 78:133-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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22
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Hayes JP, Vanelzakker MB, Shin LM. Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Front Integr Neurosci 2012; 6:89. [PMID: 23087624 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00089/bibtex] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric syndrome that develops after exposure to terrifying and life-threatening events including warfare, motor-vehicle accidents, and physical and sexual assault. The emotional experience of psychological trauma can have long-term cognitive effects. The hallmark symptoms of PTSD involve alterations to cognitive processes such as memory, attention, planning, and problem solving, underscoring the detrimental impact that negative emotionality has on cognitive functioning. As such, an important challenge for PTSD researchers and treatment providers is to understand the dynamic interplay between emotion and cognition. Contemporary cognitive models of PTSD theorize that a preponderance of information processing resources are allocated toward threat detection and interpretation of innocuous stimuli as threatening, narrowing one's attentional focus at the expense of other cognitive operations. Decades of research have shown support for these cognitive models of PTSD using a variety of tasks and methodological approaches. The primary goal of this review is to summarize the latest neurocognitive and neuroimaging research of emotion-cognition interactions in PTSD. To directly assess the influence of emotion on cognition and vice versa, the studies reviewed employed challenge tasks that included both cognitive and emotional components. The findings provide evidence for memory and attention deficits in PTSD that are often associated with changes in functional brain activity. The results are reviewed to provide future directions for research that may direct better and more effective treatments for PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmeet P Hayes
- National Center for PTSD, VA Boston Healthcare System Boston, MA, USA ; Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine Boston, MA, USA
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23
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Blix I, Brennen T. Intentional forgetting of emotional words after trauma: a study with victims of sexual assault. Front Psychol 2011; 2:235. [PMID: 21994497 PMCID: PMC3182753 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Following exposure to a trauma, people tend to experience intrusive thoughts and memories about the event. In order to investigate whether intrusive memories in the aftermath of trauma might be accounted for by an impaired ability to intentionally forget disturbing material, the present study used a modified Directed Forgetting task to examine intentional forgetting and intrusive recall of words in sexual assault victims and controls. By including words related to the trauma in addition to neutral, positive, and threat-related stimuli it was possible to test for trauma-specific effects. No difference between the Trauma and the Control group was found for correct recall of to-be-forgotten (F) words or to-be-remembered (R) words. However, when recalling words from R-list, the Trauma group mistakenly recalled significantly more trauma-specific words from F-list. “Intrusive“ recall of F-trauma words when asked to recall R-words was related to symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder reported on the Impact of Event Scale and the Post-traumatic Diagnostic Scale. The results are discussed in term of a source-monitoring account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Blix
- Department of Psychology, Center for the Study of Human Cognition, University of Oslo Oslo, Norway
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24
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Zwissler B, Koessler S, Engler H, Schedlowski M, Kissler J. Acute psycho-social stress does not disrupt item-method directed forgetting, emotional stimulus content does. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2011; 95:346-54. [PMID: 21295148 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2010] [Revised: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
It has been shown that stress affects episodic memory in general, but knowledge about stress effects on memory control processes such as directed forgetting is sparse. Whereas in previous studies item-method directed forgetting was found to be altered in post-traumatic stress disorder patients and abolished for highly arousing negative pictorial stimuli in students, no study so far has investigated the effects of experimentally induced psycho-social stress on this task or examined the role of positive picture stimuli. In the present study, 41 participants performed an item-method directed forgetting experiment while being exposed either to a psychosocial laboratory stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), or a cognitively challenging but non-stressful control condition. Neutral and positive pictures were presented as stimuli. As predicted, salivary cortisol level as a biological marker of the human stress response increased only in the TSST group. Still, both groups showed directed forgetting. However, emotional content of the employed stimuli affected memory control: Directed forgetting was intact for neutral pictures whereas it was attenuated for positive ones. This attenuation was primarily due to selective rehearsal improving discrimination accuracy for neutral, but not positive, to-be-remembered items. Results suggest that acute experimentally induced stress does not alter item-method directed forgetting while emotional stimulus content does.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastian Zwissler
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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25
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Zou Z, Zhang JX, Huang X, Weng X. Impaired directed forgetting in abstinent heroin addicts. Memory 2011; 19:36-44. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2010.532806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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26
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LeMoult J, Hertel PT, Joormann J. Training the forgetting of negative words: The role of direct suppression and the relation to stress reactivity. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.1682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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27
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Directed forgetting in direct and indirect tests of memory: Seeking evidence of retrieval inhibition using electrophysiological measures. Brain Cogn 2009; 71:153-64. [PMID: 19556048 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2009.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Revised: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 05/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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28
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Bressan RA, Quarantini LC, Andreoli SB, Araújo C, Breen G, Guindalini C, Hoexter M, Jackowski AP, Jorge MR, Lacerda ALT, Lara DR, Malta S, Moriyama TS, Quintana MI, Ribeiro WS, Ruiz J, Schoedl AF, Shih MC, Figueira I, Koenen KC, Mello MF, Mari JJ. The posttraumatic stress disorder project in Brazil: neuropsychological, structural and molecular neuroimaging studies in victims of urban violence. BMC Psychiatry 2009; 9:30. [PMID: 19480721 PMCID: PMC2702374 DOI: 10.1186/1471-244x-9-30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2009] [Accepted: 06/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Life trauma is highly prevalent in the general population and posttraumatic stress disorder is among the most prevalent psychiatric consequences of trauma exposure. Brazil has a unique environment to conduct translational research about psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder, since urban violence became a Brazilian phenomenon, being particularly related to the rapid population growth of its cities. This research involves three case-control studies: a neuropsychological, a structural neuroimaging and a molecular neuroimaging study, each focusing on different objectives but providing complementary information. First, it aims to examine cognitive functioning of PTSD subjects and its relationships with symptomatology. The second objective is to evaluate neurostructural integrity of orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus in PTSD subjects. The third aim is to evaluate if patients with PTSD have decreased dopamine transporter density in the basal ganglia as compared to resilient controls subjects. This paper shows the research rationale and design for these three case-control studies. METHODS AND DESIGN Cases and controls will be identified through an epidemiologic survey conducted in the city of São Paulo. Subjects exposed to traumatic life experiences resulting in posttraumatic stress disorder (cases) will be compared to resilient victims of traumatic life experiences without PTSD (controls) aiming to identify biological variables that might protect or predispose to PTSD. In the neuropsychological case-control study, 100 patients with PTSD, will be compared with 100 victims of trauma without posttraumatic stress disorder, age- and sex-matched controls. Similarly, 50 cases and 50 controls will be enrolled for the structural study and 25 cases and 25 controls in the functional neuroimaging study. All individuals from the three studies will complete psychometrics and a structured clinical interview (the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory, Global Assessment of Function, The Social Adjustment Scale, Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey, Early Trauma Inventory, Clinical global Impressions, and Peritraumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire). A broad neuropsychological battery will be administered for all participants of the neuropsychological study. Magnetic resonance scans will be performed to acquire structural neuroimaging data. Single photon emission computerized tomography with [(99m)Tc]-TRODAT-1 brain scans will be performed to evaluate dopamine transporters. DISCUSSION This study protocol will be informative for researchers and clinicians interested in considering, designing and/or conducting translational research in the field of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A Bressan
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas - LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Lucas C Quarantini
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, MA, USA,Depart of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Bahia, Brazil
| | | | - Celia Araújo
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gerome Breen
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Research Centre and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health at NHS South London, UK ,Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
| | - Camila Guindalini
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Hoexter
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil,Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andrea P Jackowski
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miguel R Jorge
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Acioly LT Lacerda
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Stella Malta
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil,Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tais S Moriyama
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil,Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria I Quintana
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wagner S Ribeiro
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Ruiz
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Aline F Schoedl
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ming C Shih
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurosciencias Clínicas – LiNC, São Paulo, Brazil,Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil,Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ivan Figueira
- Institute of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (IPUB – UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Karestan C Koenen
- Department of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Marcelo F Mello
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jair J Mari
- Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil,Centre for Public Mental Health, Health Services and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, University of London, London, UK
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29
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Amir N, Badour CL, Freese B. The effect of retrieval on recall of information in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Anxiety Disord 2009; 23:535-40. [PMID: 19070459 PMCID: PMC3808957 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2008] [Revised: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 10/31/2008] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive theories of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) suggest that associative memory processes may play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of the disorder. In the current study we examined the effect of associative pair rehearsal on recall ability for threatening and non-threatening information using the retrieval-practice paradigm in individuals with PTSD, traumatized controls (TC), and non-traumatized controls (NAC). Across word type, NACs demonstrated a typical retrieval-induced forgetting effect. However, individuals with PTSD benefited less from rehearsal, and failed to inhibit recall of unpracticed words in practiced categories. Participants in the TC group displayed a retrieval-induced forgetting effect similar to those individuals in the PTSD group. These findings are consistent with research indicating that individuals with PTSD may derive less benefit from rehearsal and display general inhibitory difficulties when compared to non-traumatized controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nader Amir
- SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego State University, CA 92120-4913, USA.
| | - Christal L. Badour
- SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego State University, CA 92120-4913, United States
| | - Bettina Freese
- Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, University of Granada, Spain
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Chronic thought suppression and posttraumatic symptoms: data from the Madrid March 11, 2004 terrorist attack. J Anxiety Disord 2008; 22:1326-36. [PMID: 18329844 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2007] [Revised: 01/22/2008] [Accepted: 01/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Although a considerable number of people either witnessed directly or in the mass media the traumatic scenes of the terrorist attack that took place on March 11th, 2004 in Madrid, only a fraction of Madrid citizens developed posttraumatic symptoms. In this study, posttraumatic stress-related symptoms, degree of exposure, coping strategies related to the attack, and chronic attempts to avoid intrusive thoughts (i.e., thought suppression) were assessed in a general population Madrid sample (N=503) 2-3 weeks after the attacks. Our results showed that participants with higher scores in chronic thought suppression exhibited higher levels of PTSD symptoms. Higher scores in chronic thought suppression also correlated positively with the use of avoidant coping strategies after the attacks. We discuss the possible common roots of avoidance of intrusive thoughts and avoidant coping strategies and the implications of this relationship for the emergence of stress-related symptoms as well as for public health policies.
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Bernstein KT, Ahern J, Tracy M, Boscarino JA, Vlahov D, Galea S. Television watching and the risk of incident probable posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective evaluation. J Nerv Ment Dis 2007; 195:41-7. [PMID: 17220738 DOI: 10.1097/01.nmd.0000244784.36745.a5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The relation between viewing television coverage of a mass disaster and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is poorly understood. A cohort of New Yorkers without baseline probable PTSD (N=1787) was assessed 1 year following the September 11, 2001, attacks. The primary outcome was new-onset probable PTSD assessed through a validated scale, and the primary exposure was number of hours of September 11 anniversary news coverage viewed. A total of 99 (5.6%) of participants had developed probable PTSD at the 1-year follow-up. Watching 12 or more hours of September 11 attack anniversary news coverage was associated with a 3.4-fold increased risk of new-onset probable PTSD (p=0.004). Exposure to television coverage of the September 11 anniversary was associated with new-onset probable PTSD among a cohort of New Yorkers with no probable PTSD at baseline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle T Bernstein
- Department of Emergency Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA
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