A bi-factor model of the Montgomery Åsberg depression rating scale and future cognitive impairments in older adults: A 6-year follow-up study

Depression and bone loss as risk factors for cognitive decline: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Depression is linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD) but it is unclear whether depression is also associated with cognitive decline in the preclinical phase and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Previous meta-analyses have only investigated AD as an outcome without accounting for individuals showing cognitive decline that does not meet the diagnostic criteria for AD. Other potentially modifiable risk factors such as bone loss have also been less explored and there remains uncertainty around their temporal relationship with cognitive decline.

AIMS

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis investigating depression and bone loss as risk factors for subsequent cognitive decline.

METHODS

A comprehensive search strategy was developed and applied using four databases; MEDLINE Complete, Embase, PsycINFO and CINAHL Complete. The pooled summary effects were estimated as odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals using a random-effects model. The study protocol was registered with PROSPERO (ID: CRD42020159369).

RESULTS

A total of 75 longitudinal cohort studies were identified for meta-analysis, of which 70 examined the impact of depression on cognitive decline and five examined the impact of bone loss. Prior exposure to depression was found to be associated with cognitive score reduction (OR 1.33 95% CI 1.17, 1.51), MCI incidence (OR 1.52 95% CI 1.28, 1.79) and AD incidence (OR 1.79 95% CI 1.46, 2.2). Bone loss was also associated with the incidence of AD (OR=1.81 95% CI 1.28, 2.55).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the results support the hypothesis that depression is associated with subsequent cognitive decline. Bone loss was also found to be associated with AD incidence; however, due to the small number of studies, the results should be viewed with caution.