Behavioral health mediators of the link between posttraumatic stress disorder and dyslipidemia

Associations of TNF-RII rs1061622 With Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Their Interplays on Serum Lipids Levels in Adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To verify effects of rs1061622 at tumor necrosis factor-α receptor II (TNF-RII) gene (TNF-RII) on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its interactive effects with PTSD on serum lipids levels in adolescents.

METHODS

PTSD was measured by PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C) in 699 adolescent survivors at 6 months after Wenchuan earthquake in China. A polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism assay were utilized for TNF-RII rs1061622 genotyping followed by verification using DNA sequencing. Serum triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were tested using routine methods.

RESULTS

G (deoxyguanine) allele carriers had higher PCL-C scores than TT (deoxythymidine) homozygotes in female subjects. Female adolescents had higher PCL-C scores than male subjects in TT homozygotes. Predictors of PTSD prevalence and severity were different between G allele carriers and TT homozygotes. Subjects with PTSD had lower TG, TG/HDL-C, TC/HDL-C, and higher HDL-C than adolescents without PTSD in male G allele carriers. G allele carriers had higher TG/HDL-C and TC/HDL-C than TT homozygotes in male adolescents without PTSD, and lower TG and TG/HDL-C in male PTSD patients. G allele carriers had higher TG than TT homozygotes only in female adolescents without PTSD.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest reciprocal actions of TNF-RII rs1061622 with other factors on PTSD severity, interplays of TNF-RII rs1061622 with PTSD on serum lipid levels, and novel treatment strategies for PTSD and comorbidities of PTSD with hyperlipidemia among adolescents with different genetic backgrounds of TNF-RII rs1061622 after experiencing traumatic events.

Dog ownership may promote cardiometabolic health in U.S. military veterans

Dog ownership has been associated with reduced cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in civilian epidemiological samples. Associations between dog ownership and cardiometabolic disease were examined in the 2019-2020 wave of the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Dog and cat ownership data were obtained from 3078 Veterans and cross-tabulated with self-reported, professionally diagnosed, heart disease, heart attack, stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol. In unadjusted tests, dog ownership was associated with lower rates of heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol, while cat ownership was not. Relative to non-owners, dog owners were younger, were more likely to screen positive for posttraumatic stress disorder and/or major depressive disorder, and more active. Binary logistic regression models of associations between dog ownership and cardiometabolic disease were adjusted for age, sex, trauma load, mood disorder, substance abuse, nicotine abuse, and exercise. After adjustment, dog ownership was still associated with lower odds of hypertension and high cholesterol. Dog ownership also interacted with exercise to lower odds of heart disease and attenuated the effect of trauma load on hypertension. Conversely, age interacted with dog ownership such that odds of diabetes and stroke were higher in older Veterans who owned dogs.

Heart Rate During Sleep in PTSD Patients: Moderation by Contact with a Service Dog

There is growing interest in the potential health benefits of dog ownership in both the lay and scientific communities. Large reductions in risk for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in dog owners relative to non-owners have been observed in epidemiological samples. Persons diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder exhibit elevated risk for cardiovascular disease. The current study tested a sample of 45 U.S. military veterans with deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder employing an intensive, longitudinal, within-subjects design contrasting sleep heart rate on nights with and without a service dog. As participants were engaged in residential psychiatric treatment, sleep opportunities, waking activities, meals, and medications, were consistently scheduled. The primary recording methodology, mattress actigraphy, enabled passive quantification of heart rate over a total sample of 1097 nights. Service dog contact was associated with reduced sleep heart rate especially in participants with more severe PTSD. Longer-term longitudinal studies will be needed to assess the durability and asymptotic magnitude of this effect. An unexpected effect of nights in study was associated with increased heart rate consistent with hospitalization-associated deconditioning.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Lipid Signatures in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

BACKGROUND

Research assessing lipid levels in individuals diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has yielded mixed results. This study aimed to employ meta-analytic techniques to characterize the relationship between the levels of lipid profiles and PTSD.

METHODS

We performed meta-analyses of studies comparing profiles and levels of lipids between PTSD patients and healthy individuals by searching Embase, Ovid Medline, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Cochrane databases for the studies until March 2021. Meta-analyses were performed using random-effects models with the restricted maximum-likelihood estimator to synthesize the effect size assessed by standardized mean difference (SMD) across studies.

FINDINGS

A total of 8,657 abstracts were identified, and 17 studies were included. Levels of total cholesterol (TC) (SMD = 0.57 95% CI, 0.27-0.87, p = 0.003), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI, 0.19-0.76, p = 0.004), and triglyceride (TG) (SMD = 0.46, 95% CI, 0.22-0.70, p = 0.001) were found to be higher, while levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (SMD = -0.47, -0.88 to -0.07, p = 0.026) were found to be lower in PTSD patients compared to healthy controls. Subgroup analysis showed that TG levels were higher in PTSD patients who were on or off of psychotropic medications, both < 40 and ≥ 40 years of age, and having body mass index of < 30 and ≥ 30 compared to healthy controls.

INTERPRETATION

This work suggested dysregulation of lipids in PTSD that may serve as biomarker to predict the risk. The study will be useful for physicians considering lipid profiles in PTSD patients to reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Increased Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Veterans with PTSD Untreated with Antipsychotic Medications

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is not solely a psychiatric disorder; it also includes significant medical morbidity. Although there is evidence of increased risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in PTSD, the interpretation of previous studies is confounded by inclusion of people on antipsychotic medications, which independently cause increased MetS. In this study we investigated whether Veterans with PTSD not treated with antipsychotic medications (n=115) demonstrate increased MetS compared to an age-comparable group of people from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHNES; n=1005). Using standardized criteria (abnormal values in 3 out of the 5 domains of obesity, hypertension, high density lipoprotein, triglyceride and fasting glucose concentrations) we compared the prevalence of MetS across groups. Relative to the NHNES group, a significantly higher proportion of the Veteran PTSD group met criteria for MetS (26.9% vs. 41.7%) with a higher proportion of abnormal values in four out of five MetS domains (excepting glucose). Our results suggest that the elevation of MetS associated with PTSD cannot be fully explained by iatrogenic effects of antipsychotic medication. We suggest that extra attention be devoted to the clinical management of metabolic risk factors for morbidity in patients with PTSD.

Post-traumatic stress disorder and its association with stroke and stroke risk factors: A literature review

Stroke is a major cause of mortality and disability globally that has multiple risk factors. A risk factor that has recently gained more attention is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Literature searches were carried out for updated PTSD information and for the relationship between PTSD and stroke. The review was divided into two sections, one exploring PTSD as an independent risk factor for stroke, with a second concentrating on PTSD's influence on stroke risk factors. The study presents accumulating evidence that shows traumatic stress predicts stroke and is also linked to many major stroke risk factors. The review contributes knowledge to stroke aetiology and acts as a reference for understanding the relationship between PTSD and stroke. The information presented indicates that screening and identification of traumatic experience would be beneficial for directing stroke patients to appropriate psychological and lifestyle interventions. In doing so, the burden of stroke may be reduced worldwide.

Psychological Health, Well-Being, and the Mind-Heart-Body Connection: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

As clinicians delivering health care, we are very good at treating disease but often not as good at treating the person. The focus of our attention has been on the specific physical condition rather than the patient as a whole. Less attention has been given to psychological health and how that can contribute to physical health and disease. However, there is now an increasing appreciation of how psychological health can contribute not only in a negative way to cardiovascular disease (CVD) but also in a positive way to better cardiovascular health and reduced cardiovascular risk. This American Heart Association scientific statement was commissioned to evaluate, synthesize, and summarize for the health care community knowledge to date on the relationship between psychological health and cardiovascular health and disease and to suggest simple steps to screen for, and ultimately improve, the psychological health of patients with and at risk for CVD. Based on current study data, the following statements can be made: There are good data showing clear associations between psychological health and CVD and risk; there is increasing evidence that psychological health may be causally linked to biological processes and behaviors that contribute to and cause CVD; the preponderance of data suggest that interventions to improve psychological health can have a beneficial impact on cardiovascular health; simple screening measures can be used by health care providers for patients with or at risk for CVD to assess psychological health status; and consideration of psychological health is advisable in the evaluation and management of patients with or at risk for CVD.

Depression Augments Plasma APOA4 without Changes of Plasma Lipids and Glucose in Female Adolescents Carrying G Allele of APOA4 rs5104

The association of apolipoprotein AIV (APOA4) with depression or plasma levels of lipids and glucose has been inconsistently reported. However, interplays between APOA4 and depression on the levels have not been explored yet. The present study aimed to investigate plasma levels of APOA4, lipids, and glucose in adolescents with different genotypes of APOA4 rs5104 and with or without depression. Depressive symptoms were assessed in 631 adolescents by Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). A total score of 14 was defined as the cutoff point for depression. Plasma levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), glucose, and insulin were measured by routine methods, and APOA4 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Genotyping was performed by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses and verified by DNA sequencing. Female adolescents had higher prevalence of depression than male subjects only in G allele carriers (p = 0.015), but not in AA homozygotes. Risk factors of depression and predictors of depression severity were different between G allele carriers and AA homozygotes. Lower levels of glucose (p = 0.003) were observed in male G allele carriers than those in male AA homozygotes and increased TG levels (p = 0.008) in female G allele carriers when compared with those in female AA homozygotes. When both APOA4 rs5104 and depression were taken into account, subjects with depression had higher levels of plasma APOA4 than adolescents without depression only in female G allele carriers (p = 0.043), but no significant changes of plasma lipids and glucose. Depression augments plasma APOA4 levels without changes of plasma lipids and glucose in female adolescents carrying G allele of APOA4 rs5104. These results may provide a novel explanation for the inconsistent relationship between depression, APOA4, and plasma levels of lipids and glucose in the literature.

Metabolic syndrome risk in relation to posttraumatic stress disorder among trauma-exposed civilians in Gansu Province, China

This study included 1456 men and 1411 women who were trauma-exposed and underwent routine health examinations in a community epidemiological investigation. The participants completed the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Check List-Civilian Version (PCL-C) for PTSD and medical examinations to detect metabolic syndrome. Adjustments for age, marriage, exercise, education, cigarette smoking, cancer, stroke, angina, and thyroid disease were performed. The relationship between PTSD and metabolic syndrome and each of its components was analyzed by multiple logistic regression.In women, PTSD was associated with metabolic syndrome (OR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.01-1.95, P = .047) and the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol component (OR = 1.98, 95% CI = 1.04-2.12, P = .002). In men, PTSD was related to the hypertension component of metabolic syndrome (OR = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.31-0.92, P = .023). There was also a relationship between PTSD severity and metabolism (OR = 1.141, 95% CI = 1.002-1.280, P = 0.037) in women, and PTSD was inversely associated with the hypertension component (OR = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.31-0.92, P = .023) in men.PTSD was related to metabolic syndrome only in women. We plan to further research the mechanism of sex differences and dyslipidemia.

Negative Affect-Related Autonomic Arousal Mediates the Association between Baroreflex Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance in Non-Diabetic Young Adults

Autonomic dysfunction, in particular under-regulation of heart rate (HR) by the baroreflex, is implicated in development of insulin resistance (IR). According to reactivity hypothesis, sympathetic response to stressors may be more sensitive at predicting IR than baroreceptor sensitivity (BRS), a baseline measure of baroreflex functioning. Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) of negative affect coupled with minute-to-minute HR and heart-rate variability (HRV) monitoring, we examined whether negative affect (NA)-related autonomic arousal mediates the association of BRS with IR. At baseline, BRS was measured, and fasting serum glucose and insulin levels were collected from 178 young adults (18-39 years old), from which homeostasis model assessment of IR (HOMA-IR) and beta-cell functioning (HOMA %B) were derived. Participants subsequently underwent one day of Holter HR and HRV monitoring while reporting negative affect levels via EMA. Multilevel modeling was used to assess the associations of momentary negative affect with HR and low- (LF) and high-frequency (HF) HRV during the 5-minute intervals following each EMA reading. Structural equation modeling was then used to determine whether individual differences in these associations mediated the association of BRS with IR, measured by HOMA-IR, HOMA %B, and insulin levels. As predicted, BRS was negatively associated with the IR (β = -.17, p = .024). However, NA-related autonomic arousal mediated their association, accounting for 56% of the covariance between BRS and IR. Not only do these results provide support for reactivity hypothesis, they reveal a potential point of intervention in the treatment of affective dysregulation.

Cardiovascular risks in relation to posttraumatic stress severity among young trauma-exposed women

BACKGROUND

Posttraumatic stress is associated with elevated risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Relatively little research, particularly among women, has documented mechanisms by which PTSD might confer CVD risk during early adulthood. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether the number and relative levels of CVD risk factors are associated with posttraumatic stress symptom severity among young, trauma-exposed women.

METHODS

Participants were premenopausal women ages 19-49 with varying levels of posttraumatic stress and no history of chronic medical illness (n = 54), and were recruited from mental health clinics and the general community. Posttraumatic stress severity was assessed with a structured clinical interview (Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale). The CVD risk factors assessed were lipids (total cholesterol, triglycerides, high- and low-density lipoproteins), resting blood pressure (BP), body mass index (BMI), no exercise in typical week, and cigarette smoking.

RESULTS

Posttraumatic stress severity was associated with lower high-density lipoprotein levels and higher triglycerides, greater systolic and diastolic BP, greater BMI, and a greater number of total CVD risk factors.

LIMITATIONS

The main limitation is the limited number of participants who displayed clinical levels on some of the CVD risk factors (e.g., BP). Nonetheless, most participants exhibited more than one CVD risk factor, indicating the potential for many of the women in this relatively young sample to progress toward greater risk later in life.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results support the contention that, in the absence of medical illness, posttraumatic stress symptom severity among young women is associated with several CVD risk factors early in life.

Interplays of estrogen receptor alpha gene rs2234693 with post-traumatic stress disorder influence serum glucose and lipids profiles in Chinese adolescents

Both post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) gene rs2234693 were reported to influence serum glucose and lipids profiles. However, their interactions on serum glucose and lipids profiles have not been reported. A total of 708 Chinese Han high school students were recruited at 6th months after the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. Serum concentrations of fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting blood insulin (FBI), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) were detected. Body mass index (BMI) and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were calculated. PTSD was assessed by the PTSD Checklist Civilian Version (PCL-C). Variants of ESR1 rs2234693 was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analyses and verified by DNA sequencing. The male subjects with PTSD had a trend of higher FBG (p = 0.077) and significantly higher FBI and HOMA-IR than male controls. The PTSD subjects had significantly higher levels of FBG, FBI, HOMA-IR and HDL-C than the controls only in the male C allele carriers irrespective of adjustment for age and BMI. In the male controls group, the C allele carriers had significantly lower HDL-C than the TT homozygotes regardless of adjustment for age and BMI. In female PTSD group, the C allele carriers had significantly higher TC/HDL-C and LDL-C/HDL-C than the TT homozygotes after adjustment for age and BMI. These results suggest the interplays of ESR1 rs2234693 with PTSD influence serum glucose and lipids profiles with a gender dependent manner.

Genetic Variants of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Metabolic Indices in Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a trauma and stressor related disorder that may develop after exposure to an event that involved the actual or possible threat of death, violence or serious injury. Its molecular underpinning is still not clear. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) modulates neuronal processes such as the response to stress, but also weight control, energy and glucose homeostasis. Plasma BDNF levels and a functional BDNF Val66Met (rs6265) polymorphism were reported to be associated with PTSD, as well as with increased body mass index (BMI) and dyslipidaemia in healthy subjects and patients with cardio-metabolic diseases, but these results are controversial. The other frequently studied BDNF polymorphism, C270T (rs56164415), has been associated with the development of different neuropsychiatric symptoms/disorders. As far as we are aware, there are no data on the association of BDNF Val66Met and C270T polymorphisms with metabolic indices in PTSD. Due to high rates of obesity and dyslipidaemia in PTSD, the aim of this study was to elucidate the association of BDNF Val66Met and C270T polymorphisms with BMI and lipid levels in veterans with PTSD. We hypothesized that BDNF variants contribute to susceptibility to metabolic disturbances in PTSD. The study included 333 Caucasian males with combat related PTSD, diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria. Genotyping of the BDNF Val66Met and C270T polymorphisms was performed using the real-time PCR method. Results were analyzed using hierarchical multiple linear regression and the Mann-Whitney test, with p-value corrected to 0.005. The results showed that BDNF Val66Met and BDNF C270T polymorphisms were not significantly associated with BMI, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol or triglycerides. Although the BDNF C270T polymorphism was nominally associated only with HDL-cholesterol in veterans with PTSD, this significance disappeared after controlling for the effect of age. Namely, slightly higher plasma HDL values in T allele carriers, compared to CC homozygotes, were associated with differences in age. Our results, controlled for the critical covariates, revealed that BDNF Val66Met and C270T were not significantly associated with metabolic indices in veterans with PTSD and that these genetic variants do not contribute to susceptibility to metabolic disturbances in PTSD.

Plasma lipoproteins in posttraumatic stress disorder patients compared to healthy controls and their associations with the HPA- and HPT-axis

BACKGROUND

Based on studies among primarily male veteran subjects, lipoproteins are thought to mediate the association of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, recent civilian studies with female samples or samples with both sexes represented provide little evidence for this association. Gender, diet and sex-specific effects of stress hormones on lipoproteins may explain this dissociation in findings.

METHOD

Cross-sectional analysis of plasma concentrations of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triglycerides (TG) in a male and female sample of 49 PTSD-patients due to civilian trauma and 45 healthy controls. Second, we related these lipoproteins to several stress hormones (prolactin, cortisol, DHEA(S), TSH, T4).

RESULTS

Patients showed lower LDL (p=0.033) and LDL:HDL ratio (p=0.038) compared to controls, also when adjusting for diet. Sex influenced the effect of having PTSD on LDL with only male patients having lower values than male controls (p=0.012). All stress hormones were associated with several lipoproteins, mostly in a sex-dependent manner. For LDL, a significant sex-by-cortisol effect (p<0.001), having PTSD-by-sex-by-DHEA (p<0.001), having PTSD-by-sex-by-DHEAS (p=0.016) and having PTSD-by-sex-by-prolactin (p=0.003) was found.

CONCLUSION

In this male and female civilian sample we found a somewhat more favorable lipoprotein profile in PTSD-patients in contrast to evidence from strictly male veteran samples exhibiting a less favorable lipoprotein profile. Male patients did not exhibit a worse lipoprotein profile than female patients and therefore gender cannot explain the contradiction in evidence. Additionally, we found that PTSD-related stress hormones are associated with lipoproteins levels in patients in a sex-specific manner. Specific configurations of stress hormones may contribute to CVD in male patients or protect in female patients. Further research on these configurations could indicate which PTSD-patients are especially at risk for CVD and which are not. This could guide future precision medicine efforts to prevent and treat the still growing burden of CVD morbidity and mortality in PTSD.

Alcohol Use Disorder Moderates the Effect of Age on Heart Rate Variability in Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Research on heart rate variability (HRV) in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and comorbid alcohol use disorder (AUD) is limited despite its use as a biomarker of both disorders. This study examined whether AUD comorbidity contributes an additive effect on HRV for veterans with PTSD. HRV was assessed in 70 male Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans with PTSD, including 32 with co-occurring AUD. Mean HRV values for both groups were below the mean for healthy adults, but additive effects of PTSD and AUD on HRV were not observed. Consistent with prior studies, hierarchical regressions showed that HRV decreased with age in the PTSD-only group. However, HRV increased slightly with age among veterans with both PTSD and AUD. This interaction remained significant after controlling for common HRV covariates. These findings support HRV as a biomarker of PTSD and extend research by demonstrating the complex relationship between PTSD and HRV in the context of co-occurring AUD.

Sleep quality, chronotype and metabolic syndrome components in bipolar disorders during the remission period: Results from the FACE-BD cohort

Data on sleep or circadian abnormalities and metabolic disturbances in euthymic bipolar disorders are scarce and based on small sample sizes. The aim of this study was to explore the associations between sleep disturbances, chronotype and metabolic components in a large sample of euthymic patients with bipolar disorders (BD). From 2009 to 2015, 752 individuals with bipolar disorders from the FACE-BD cohort were included and assessed for sleep quality, chronotype and metabolic components. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID) was used to confirm the diagnosis of BD. Subjective sleep quality was measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and chronotype with the Composite Scale of Morningness. Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, psychotropic treatment, psychiatric comorbidities and blood samples were collected. In our sample, 22.4% of individuals with BD presented with a metabolic syndrome, 53.7% had sleep disturbances, 25.4% were considered as having an evening chronotype and 12.6% as having a morning chronotype. Independently of potential confounders, euthymic patients with sleep disturbances had a higher abdominal circumference, and patients with evening chronotype had a significantly higher level of triglycerides. There was an association between evening chronotype and an increased atherogenic index of plasma (OR = 4.8, 95%CI = 1.6-14.7). Our findings contribute the scant literature on the relationship between sleep quality, chronotype and cardiometabolic components in euthymic individuals with BD and highlight the need to improve quality of sleep and patient education about healthier sleep-hygiene practices.

Trauma and Autonomic Dysregulation: Episodic-Versus Systemic-Negative Affect Underlying Cardiovascular Risk in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

OBJECTIVE

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked to elevated heart rate (HR) and reduced heart rate variability (HRV) in cross-sectional research. Recent evidence suggests that this link may be driven by individual differences in autonomic arousal associated with momentary negative affect (NA). Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) of NA and minute-to-minute HR/HRV monitoring, we examined whether NA-related HR/HRV mediated the association of PTSD symptom severity with 24-hour HRV and endothelial functioning.

METHODS

One hundred ninety-seven young adults (18-39 years), 93 with PTSD, underwent 1 day of Holter monitoring while concurrently reporting NA levels via EMA. Two noninvasive measures of endothelial functioning-flow-mediated dilation and hyperemic flow-were also collected. Multilevel modeling was used to assess the associations of momentary NA with HR and low- and high-frequency HRV during the 5-minute intervals after each EMA reading. Latent variable modeling was then used to determine whether individual differences in these associations mediated the association of PTSD symptom severity with 24-hour HRV, flow-mediated dilation, and hyperemic flow.

RESULTS

PTSD symptom severity was positively associated with NA-related autonomic arousal (β = .21, p < .001), which significantly mediated the association of PTSD symptom severity with 24-hour HRV and hyperemic flow, accounting for 62% and 34% of their associations, respectively, while overshadowing the influence of smoking, lifetime alcohol dependence, sleep duration, mean NA, and episodes of acute NA.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that NA-related autonomic arousal is both a primary factor driving cardiovascular risk in PTSD and a potential point of intervention.

Circadian Contrasts in Heart Rate Variability Associated With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in a Young Adult Cohort

Prior research has demonstrated that individuals exposed to trauma have shown impaired autonomic function. We sought to determine if heart rate variability (HRV), a marker of impaired autonomic function, differed across periods of wake, rest, and sleep as a function of the level of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A sample of young adults (N = 209), 95 of whom met full criteria for current PTSD based on the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS; Blake et al., 1995), were evaluated for ≈ 24 hr using actigraphy and electrocardiogram. Actigraphy data were categorized as active, rest, or sleep. Multilevel modeling analyses showed that individuals with high PTSD symptom severity had lower high-frequency HRV than individuals with low PTSD symptom severity during periods of sleep, t(1083) = 2.20, p = .028, Cohen's d = 0.12. No differences were found during periods of activity, t(1083) = 1.34, p = .499, d = 0.05, or rest, t(1083) = 1.34, p = .180, d = 0.09. Our findings extended the import of prior studies to suggest that those with elevated PTSD symptoms may have decreased parasympathetic control during sleep. Moreover, relative to periods of wake and rest, sleep may represent a state of increased vulnerability for decreased parasympathetic cardiac control. Individuals with elevated PTSD symptoms may benefit from early screening for detection of cardiovascular disease.

An investigation of vago-regulatory and health-behavior accounts for increased inflammation in posttraumatic stress disorder

OBJECTIVE

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked to chronic inflammation, a condition that poses a risk for cardiovascular disease. Attenuated vagal activity has been proposed as a potential mediator of PTSD and inflammation, although associated behavioral health risks-namely cigarette smoking and alcohol dependence-might also account for that link.

METHODS

Inflammation was quantified by fasting serum concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-10, and thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC)/CCL17 collected from 85 participants with PTSD and 82 without PTSD. Latent variable modeling was used to assess the relationship between PTSD symptom severity and inflammation along with potential mediators vagal activity (respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA), smoking status, and lifetime alcohol dependence.

RESULTS

PTSD symptom severity was associated with increased inflammation (β=.18, p=.02). However, this association was reduced in models that adjusted for RSA, smoking status, and lifetime alcohol dependence. Independent mediation effects were deemed significant via bootstrapping analyses. Together, RSA, smoking status, and lifetime alcohol dependence accounted for 95% of the effect of PTSD symptom severity on inflammation.

CONCLUSION

Although RSA accounted for a modest proportion of the association between posttraumatic stress and pro-inflammatory responses, behavioral factors-specifically cigarette smoking and alcohol dependence-proved to be larger mediators. The benefits of PTSD treatment may be enhanced by additional interventions aimed at modifying these health behaviors.

PTSD-Related Cardiovascular Disease and Accelerated Cellular Aging

We reviewed the literature from 2010 to 2016 on the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and cardiometabolic health conditions, including metabolic syndrome, coronary artery disease, stroke, and myocardial infarction, among others. Collectively, PTSD was associated with increased risk of cardiometabolic health problems, with pre-clinical and clinical studies offering evidence of behavioral (e.g., poor sleep, cigarette use, poor diet and insufficient exercise) and biological (e.g., autonomic reactivity, inflammation) mediators of these associations. We discuss the possibility that these behavioral and biological mechanisms lead to accelerated cellular aging, as regulated in the epigenome, which contributes to premature cardiometabolic health decline. This has implications for the assessment, prevention, and treatment of cardiometabolic conditions among those with PTSD. It also highlights the need to better understand the mechanisms linking PTSD to accelerated aging and to develop interventions to attenuate or reverse this phenomenon.

Circulating levels of hormones, lipids, and immune mediators in post-traumatic stress disorder - a 3-month follow-up study

A number of peripheral blood analytes have been proposed as potential biomarkers of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Few studies have investigated whether observed changes in biomarkers persist over time. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of combat-related chronic PTSD with a wide array of putative PTSD biomarkers and to determine reliability of the measurements, i.e., correlations over time. Croatian combat veterans with chronic PTSD (n = 69) and age-matched healthy controls (n = 32), all men, were assessed at two time points separated by 3 months. Serum levels of lipids, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S), prolactin, and C-reactive protein were determined. Multiplex assay was used for the simultaneous assessment of 13 analytes in sera: cytokines [interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, TNF-α], adhesion molecules (sPECAM-1, sICAM-1), chemokines (IL-8 and MIP-1α), sCD40L, nerve growth factor, and leptin. Group differences and changes over time were tested by parametric or non-parametric tests, including repeated measures analysis of covariance. Reliability estimates [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and kappa] were also calculated. Robust associations of PTSD with higher levels of DHEA-S [F(1,75) = 8.14, p = 0.006)] and lower levels of prolactin [F(1,75) = 5.40, p = 0.023] were found. Measurements showed good to excellent reproducibility (DHEA-S, ICC = 0.50; prolactin, ICC = 0.79). Serum lipids did not differ between groups but significant increase of LDL-C after 3 months was observed in the PTSD group (t = 6.87, p < 0.001). IL-8 was lower in the PTSD group (t = 4.37, p < 0.001) but assessments showed poor reproducibility (ICC = -0.08). Stable DHEA-S and prolactin changes highlight their potential to be reliable markers of PTSD. Change in lipid profiles after 3 months suggests that PTSD patients may be more prone to hyperlipidemia. High intra-individual variability in some variables emphasizes the importance of longitudinal studies in investigations of PTSD biomarkers.

Posttraumatic stress, heart rate variability, and the mediating role of behavioral health risks

OBJECTIVE

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked to reduced heart rate variability (HRV), which is in turn a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and death. Although hyperarousal and anxiety are thought to underlie this association, behavioral health risks, including smoking, alcohol dependence, obesity, and sleep disturbance, represent potential mechanisms linking PTSD and HRV.

METHODS

To test this hypothesis, short-term laboratory-based and 24-hour ambulatory measures of HRV were collected from 227 young adults (18-39 years), 107 of whom were diagnosed as having PTSD. Latent variable modeling was used to assess the relationship of PTSD symptoms with HRV along with potential behavioral health mediators.

RESULTS

PTSD symptoms were associated with reduced HRV (β = -0.21, p = .002). However, this association was reduced in models that adjusted for cigarette consumption and history of alcohol dependence and was rendered nonsignificant in a model adjusting for sleep disturbance. Independent mediation effects were deemed significant via bootstrapping analysis. Together, the three behavioral health factors (cigarette consumption, history of alcohol dependence, and sleep disturbance) accounted for 94% of the shared variance between PTSD symptoms and HRV. Abdominal obesity was not a significant mediator.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that behavioral factors-specifically smoking, alcohol overuse, and sleep disturbance-mediate the association between PTSD and HRV-based indices of autonomic nervous system dysregulation. Benefits from psychiatric and psychological interventions in PTSD may therefore be enhanced by including modification of health behaviors.

Complaints of sleep disturbances are associated with cardiovascular disease: results from the Gutenberg Health Study

Background

Despite their high prevalence, sleep disorders often remain unrecognized and untreated because of barriers to assessment and management. The aims of the present study were to examine associations of complaints of sleep disturbances with cardiovascular disease, related risk factors, and inflammation in the community and to determine the contribution of sleep disturbances to self-perceived physical health.

Method

The sample consists of n = 10.000 participants, aged 35 to 74 years of a population based community sample in Germany. Cross-sectional associations of complaints of sleep disturbances with cardiovascular risk factors and disease, biomarkers of inflammation, depression, anxiety, and physical health status were analyzed.

Results

19% of our sample endorsed clinically significant sleep disturbances. In the unadjusted analyses severity of sleep disturbances increased with female sex, low socioeconomic status, living without a partnership, cardiovascular disease, depression, anxiety, poor physical health, increased levels of C-reactive protein and fibrinogen. After multivariate adjustment robust associations with coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction and dyslipidemia remained. Complaints of sleep disturbances were strong and independent contributors to self-perceived poor physical health beyond depression, anxiety and medical disease burden.

Conclusions

Given the high prevalence of complaints of sleep disturbances and their strong impact on health status, increased efforts should be undertaken for their identification and treatment.