Progesterone receptor in the prostate: A potential suppressor for benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer

A case of stromal sarcoma of the prostate with the incidental detection of prostate adenocarcinoma

Prostate stromal sarcoma is very rare among patients with prostate cancer, accounting for <0.1 % of prostate malignancy. Here, we report a case of prostate stromal sarcoma combined with incidental adenocarcinoma with normal serum PSA after radical prostatectomy. This case is unique in that the occurrence of incidental adenocarcinoma might interfere with the postoperative follow-up and treatment. We can only draw from the experiences of case reports and retrospective analysis. This article describes a presentation of a rare tumor case and a review of the literature.

Network pharmacology and experimental validation to explore the pharmacological mechanism of saw palmetto and its core ingredients in benign prostatic hyperplasia treatment

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a prevalent urological condition that predominantly affects the geriatric male population, resulting in lower urinary tract symptoms. Saw palmetto is a traditional Chinese medicine for treating BPH. This study aimed to investigate the potential therapeutic mechanisms of saw palmetto in BPH treatment. The active ingredients and potential targets of saw palmetto were obtained through the TCMSP database. BPH-related targets were retrieved from the GeneCards database. PPI, GO, and KEEG analyses were performed to predict the potential therapeutic mechanism. The active ingredient-common target and common target-pathway networks were constructed by Cytoscape software. Molecular docking and cellular experiments were carried out to further validate the potential mechanism. We obtained 13 active components in saw palmetto and 56 common targets in BPH treatment. KEEG analysis showed that the estrogen signaling pathway was the most enriched and exhibited a close association with BPH. PPI analysis, along with ingredient-target and target-pathway network analyses, indicated that stigmasterol was the core ingredient and PGR, NCOA1, and NCOA2 were identified as the hub genes mediating the effects of saw palmetto against BPH. In addition, molecular docking showed that stigmasterol had strong binding to PGR, NCOA1, and NCOA2. Cellular experiments revealed that stigmasterol significantly increased the percentage of BPH-1 cells in the G0/G1 phase and inhibited cell viability and division. Furthermore, it notably reduced the expression of PGR, NCOA1, and NCOA2. Saw palmetto might inhibit cell viability and division by suppressing the expression of PGR, NCOA1, and NCOA2, thereby playing a therapeutic role in treating BPH.

Prostate-specific antigen, androgen, progesterone and oestrogen receptors in Benign prostatic hyperplasia: human tissues and animal model study

BACKGROUND

Direct evidence for the relationship between a large prostate (≥80 ml) and androgen receptor/PSA signal remains lacking in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Our aim is to identify whether the cause of a large prostate is related to progesterone receptor (PGR) androgen receptor (AR), oestrogen receptor α, β (ERα,β) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Surgical specimens of BPH in plasmakinetic resection of the prostate (PKRP) with three groups of different prostate-sizes with mean volumes of 25.97 ml, 63.80 ml, and 122.37 ml were collected for immunohistochemical analysis of the tissue microarray with PGR, AR, PSA and ERs. Rats were castrated and treated with testosterone replacement to explore androgen and PGR, AR and ERs expression levels in the prostate. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (Rt-PCR) for mRNA detection of above genes was conducted.

RESULTS

Immunoblotting, Rt-PCR and immunohistochemistry assays showed that PGR, PSA, AR, ERα expression levels were positively correlated with prostate size and that ERβ expression levels were negatively correlated with prostate volume. Animal experiments have shown that prostate volume is decreased in castrated rats with decreased PGR, AR, ERα and increased ERβ expression levels.

CONCLUSION

PGR, AR, ERs signals can be regarded as important factors for large-sized prostates in BPH patients (≥100 ml).

Knock-out of CD73 delays the onset of HR-negative breast cancer by reprogramming lipid metabolism and is associated with increased tumor mutational burden

OBJECTIVE

CD73 (ecto-5'-nucleotidase, NT5E), a cell-surface enzyme converting 5'-AMP to adenosine, is crucial for cancer progression. However, its role in the tumorigenesis process remains mostly obscure. We aimed to demonstrate CD73's role in breast cancer (BC) tumorigenesis through metabolic rewiring of fatty acid metabolism, a process recently indicated to be regulated by BC major prognostic markers, hormone receptors (HR) for estrogen (ER), and progesterone (PR).

METHODS

A murine model of chemically induced mammary gland tumorigenesis was applied to analyze CD73 knock-out (KO)-induced changes at the transcriptome (RNA-seq), proteome (IHC, WB), and lipidome (GC-EI-MS) levels. CD73 KO-induced changes were correlated with scRNA-seq and bulk RNA-seq data for human breast tissues and BCs from public collections and confirmed at the proteome level with IHC or WB analysis of BC tissue microarrays and cell lines.

RESULTS

CD73 KO delayed the onset of HR/PR-negative mammary tumors in a murine model. This delay correlated with increased expression of genes related to biosynthesis and β-oxidation of fatty acids (FAs) in the CD73 KO group at the initiation stage. STRING analysis based on RNA-seq data indicated an interplay between CD73 KO, up-regulated expression of PR-coding gene, and DEGs involved in FA metabolism, with PPARγ, a main regulator of FA synthesis, as a main connective node. In epithelial cells of mammary glands, PPARγ expression correlated with CD73 at the RNA level. With cancer progression, CD73 KO increased the levels of PUFAn3/6 (polyunsaturated omega 3/6 FAs), known ligands of PPARγ and target for lipid peroxidation, which may lead to oxidative DNA damage. It correlated with the downregulation of genes involved in cellular stress response (Mlh1, Gsta3), PR-or CD73-dependent changes in the intracellular ROS levels and expression or activation of proteins involved in DNA repair or oxidative stress response in mammary tumor or human BC cell lines, increased tumor mutational burden (TMB) and genomic instability markers in CD73 low HR-negative human BCs, and the prolonged onset of tumors in the CD73 KO HR/PR-negative group.

CONCLUSIONS

CD73 has a significant role in tumorigenesis driving the reprogramming of lipid metabolism through the regulatory loop with PR and PPARγ in epithelial cells of mammary glands. Low CD73 expression/CD73 KO might enhance mutational burden by disrupting this regulatory loop, delaying the onset of HR-negative tumors. Our results support combining therapy targeting the CD73-adenosine axis and tumor lipidome against HR-negative tumors, especially at their earliest developmental stage.

The Possible Role of Progesterone Receptors in Prostate Cancer Incidences in the Iraqi Population

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the leading diseases causing mortality. It comes in the third rank of common cancer types. It is considered extremely a complicated cancer type since it occurs in highly steroid-responsive and dependent tissues. Many factors are considered to play an important role in the disease progression of PCa, with some functioning at the molecular level.

METHODOLOGY

After applying the exclusion criteria, 200 patients who underwent proctectomy were included in this study. Following receiving patient consent, blood samples were withdrawn from patients, DNA was extracted, and precise polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification was conducted using specifically designed primers. The resulting amplicons were sequenced and analyzed.

RESULTS

The progesterone receptor B (PGRB) DNA from patients showed four distinctive single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at sites 11:101128812, 11:101128924, 11:101128949, and 11:101128986, which altered the amino acid sequences to Y>N, A>D, T>I, and C>R, respectively, compared to control. These SNPs resided in sensitive sites that either affected the control elements or promoted alterations in the protein configuration. This DNA change diminished the PGR gene function and promoted an imbalance in the encoded PGR protein structure and expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Many factors may play a role in PCa manifestation, with steroids and progesterone initially noted as factors. Many studies have dealt with the hormonal effect on PCa; however, few have ultimately determined the molecular impact on disease progression. The presence of pathogenic SNPs in the enhancing region of the gene may impact the expression level of PGR. High or low expression levels may negatively affect gene function, which can be considered a reliable factor in prostate tumorigenesis.

17β-Estradiol, through activating the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor, exacerbates the complication of benign prostatic hyperplasia in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients by inducing prostate proliferation

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is one of the major chronic complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and sex steroid hormones are common risk factors for the occurrence of T2DM and BPH. The profiles of sex steroid hormones are simultaneously quantified by LC-MS/MS in the clinical serum of patients, including simple BPH patients, newly diagnosed T2DM patients, T2DM complicated with BPH patients and matched healthy individuals. The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) inhibitor G15, GPER knockdown lentivirus, the YAP1 inhibitor verteporfin, YAP1 knockdown/overexpression lentivirus, targeted metabolomics analysis, and Co-IP assays are used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of the disrupted sex steroid hormones homeostasis in the pathological process of T2DM complicated with BPH. The homeostasis of sex steroid hormone is disrupted in the serum of patients, accompanying with the proliferated prostatic epithelial cells (PECs). The sex steroid hormone metabolic profiles of T2DM patients complicated with BPH have the greatest degrees of separation from those of healthy individuals. Elevated 17β-estradiol (E2) is the key contributor to the disrupted sex steroid hormone homeostasis, and is significantly positively related to the clinical characteristics of T2DM patients complicated with BPH. Activating GPER by E2 via Hippo-YAP1 signaling exacerbates high glucose (HG)-induced PECs proliferation through the formation of the YAP1-TEAD4 heterodimer. Knockdown or inhibition of GPER-mediated Hippo-YAP1 signaling suppresses PECs proliferation in HG and E2 co-treated BPH-1 cells. The anti-proliferative effects of verteporfin, an inhibitor of YAP1, are blocked by YAP1 overexpression in HG and E2 co-treated BPH-1 cells. Inactivating E2/GPER/Hippo/YAP1 signaling may be effective at delaying the progression of T2DM complicated with BPH by inhibiting PECs proliferation.

Mechanistic insights into steroid hormone-mediated regulation of the androgen receptor gene

Expression of the androgen receptor is key to the response of cells and tissues to androgenic steroids, such as testosterone or dihydrotestosterone, as well as impacting the benefit of hormone-dependent therapies for endocrine diseases and hormone-dependent cancers. However, the mechanisms controlling androgen receptor expression are not fully understood, limiting our ability to effectively promote or inhibit androgenic signalling therapeutically. An autoregulatory loop has been described in which androgen receptor may repress its own expression in the presence of hormone, although the molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. In this work, we elucidate the mechanisms of autoregulation and demonstrate, for the first time, that a similar repression of the AR gene is facilitated by the progesterone receptor. We show that the progesterone receptor, like the androgen receptor binds to response elements within the AR gene to effect transcriptional repression in response to hormone treatment. Mechanistically, this repression involves hormone-dependent histone deacetylation within the AR 5'UTR region and looping between sequences in intron 2 and the transcription start site (TSS). This novel pathway controlling AR expression in response to hormone stimulation may have important implications for understanding cell or tissue selective receptor signalling.

Early investigational agents for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia'

INTRODUCTION

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), as a clinical entity that affects many people, has always been in the forefront of interest among researchers, pharmaceutical companies, and physicians. Patients with BPH exhibit a diverse range of symptoms, while current treatment options can occasionally cause adverse events. All the aforementioned have led to an increased demand for more effective treatment options.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the outcomes of new medications used in a pre-clinical and clinical setting for the management of male lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS)/BPH and provides information about ongoing trials and future directions in the management of this condition. More specifically, sheds light upon drug categories, such as reductase‑adrenoceptor antagonists, drugs interfering with the nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (GMP) signaling pathway, onabotulinumtoxinA, vitamin D3 (calcitriol) analogues, selective cannabinoid (CB) receptor agonists, talaporfin sodium, inhibitor of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), drugs targeting the hormonal control of the prostate, phytotherapy, and many more.

EXPERT OPINION

Clinical trials are being conducted on a number of new medications that may emerge as effective therapeutic alternatives in the coming years.

Progesterone receptor-Grb2 interaction is associated with better outcomes in breast cancer

In addition to mediating nuclear transcription, PR mediates extranuclear functions mainly through the PR polyproline domain (PPD) interaction with the SH3 domain of cytoplasmic signaling molecules. PR-PPD-SH3 interaction inhibits EGF-mediated signaling and decreases lung cancer cell proliferation. Grb2 is an essential adaptor molecule with an SH2 domain flanked by two SH3 domains. In this study, we examined whether PR, through interaction between PR-PPD and Grb2-SH3, can interact with Grb2 in cells and breast cancer tissues. Our previous study shows that interaction between PR-PPD and Grb2 could interfere with cytoplasmic signaling and lead to inhibition of EGF-mediated signaling. GST-pulldown analysis shows that PR-PPD specifically interacts with the SH3 domains of Grb2. Immunofluorescence staining shows colocalization of PR and Grb2 in both the nucleus and cytoplasm in BT-474 breast cancer cells. Using Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) analysis, we show that PR and Grb2 interact in breast cancer cells through the Grb2-SH3 domain. Proximity Ligation Assay (PLA) analysis of 43 breast cancer specimens shows that PR-Grb2 interaction is associated with low histological stage and negatively correlates with lymph node invasion and metastasis in breast cancer. These results, together with our previous findings, suggest that PR-PPD interaction with Grb2 plays an essential role in PR-mediated growth factor signaling inhibition and could contribute significantly to better prognosis in PR- and Grb2-positive breast cancer. Our finding provides a basis for additional studies to explore a novel therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment.

The Transcriptomic Profiles of ESR1 and MMP3 Stratify the Risk of Biochemical Recurrence in Primary Prostate Cancer beyond Clinical Features

The molecular determinants of the heterogenic course of prostate cancer (PC) remain elusive. We aimed to determine the drivers predisposing to unfavorable PC outcomes anticipated by BCR events among patients of similar preoperative characteristics. The TCGA transcriptomic and clinical data of 497 PC individuals were used, stratified according to the risk of BCR by EAU-EANM-ESTRO-ESUR-SIOG. The relevance of the functional markers regarding BCR-free survival was examined by the cutp algorithm. Through UpSetR, subgroups of PC patients bearing an unfavorable signature were identified, followed by the hierarchical clustering of the major markers of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). BCR-free survival was estimated with the Cox proportional hazards regression model. ESR1 significantly differentiated BCR-free survival, whereas AR did not. An elevation in KLK3 correlated with better prognosis, although PGR, KLK3, CDH1, and MMP3 predicted BCR better than the preoperative PSA level. Patients sharing an unfavorable profile of ESR1 and MMP3 together with lymph node status, Gleason score, T, and EAU risk groups were at a higher risk of BCR originating from mesenchymal features of PC cells. To conclude, we revealed an ESR1-driven unfavorable profile of EMT underpinning a worse PC trajectory. ESR1 may have a major role in PC progression; therefore, it could become a major focus for further investigations.

Anticancer activity and metabolic alteration in colon and prostate cancer cells by novel moxifloxacin conjugates with fatty acids

The positive and pro-economic trend in the management of cancer treatment is the search for the antineoplastic potential of known, widely used and safe drugs with a different clinical purpose. A good candidate seems to be moxifloxacin with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, which as the member of the fourth generation fluoroquinolone is known to affect not only bacterial but also eukaryotic DNA topoisomerases, however at high concentration. Due to the fact that the modification of parent drug with lipid component can improve anticancer potential by increasing of bioavailability, selectivity, and cytotoxic efficiency, we evaluated the mechanisms of cytotoxic activity of novel moxifloxacin conjugates with fatty acids and verified metabolic profile in SW480, SW620 and PC3 cell lines. Our study revealed that cytotoxic potential of moxifloxacin conjugates was stronger than free moxifloxacin, moreover, they remained non-toxic to normal HaCaT cells. PC3 were more sensitive to MXF conjugates than colon cancer cells. The most promising cytotoxic activity exhibited conjugate 4m and 16m with oleic and stearic acid reducing viability of PC3 and SW620 cells. Tested conjugates activated caspases 3/7 and induced late-apoptosis, mainly in PC3 and SW620 cells. However, the most pronounced inhibition of NF-κB activation and IL-6 secretion was observed in SW480. Metabolomic analysis indicated influence of the moxifloxacin conjugates on intensity of lipid derivatives with the most successful metabolite profile in PC3. Our findings suggested the cytotoxic potential of moxifloxacin conjugates, especially with oleic and stearic acid can be beneficial in oncological therapy, including their possible anti-inflammatory and known antibacterial effect.

Androgen Metabolism and Response in Prostate Cancer Anti-Androgen Therapy Resistance

All aspects of prostate cancer evolution are closely related to androgen levels and the status of the androgen receptor (AR). Almost all treatments target androgen metabolism pathways and AR, from castration-sensitive prostate cancer (CSPC) to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Alterations in androgen metabolism and its response are one of the main reasons for prostate cancer drug resistance. In this review, we will introduce androgen metabolism, including how the androgen was synthesized, consumed, and responded to in healthy people and prostate cancer patients, and discuss how these alterations in androgen metabolism contribute to the resistance to anti-androgen therapy.

Genome-wide association study identifies a role for the progesterone receptor in benign prostatic hyperplasia risk

BACKGROUND

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is common noncancerous prostate enlargement, which is usually associated with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and can lead to complex urinary, bladder, or kidney diseases. The majority of elderly men will be affected by BPH as age increases.

METHODS

Here, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of BPH using 1942 cases and 4730 controls from the Electronic Medical Records and Genomics network (eMERGE) as discovery cohort. We then used 5109 cases and 161,911 controls from UK Biobank as validation cohort.

RESULTS

This GWAS discovered 35 genome-wide significant variants (P < 5 × 10-8), located at 22 different loci in discovery cohort. We validated four significant variants located at four different loci in validation cohort: rs8027714 at 15q11.2, rs8136152 at 22q13.2, rs10192133 at 2q24.2, and rs1237696 at 11q22.1. rs1237696 is an intronic variant on chromosome 11 in the progesterone receptor (PGR) gene (P = 4.21 ×10-8, OR [95% CI] = 1.36 [1.22-1.52]). PGR is a known drug target for BPH as the PGR agonist gestonorone caproate has been used to treat BPH in multiple countries.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that genetic variants identified from BPH GWAS can identify pharmacologic targets for BPH treatment.

Androgens in prostate cancer: A tale that never ends

Androgens play an essential role in prostate cancer. Clinical treatments that target steroidogenesis and the androgen receptor (AR) successfully postpone disease progression. Abiraterone and enzalutamide, the next-generation androgen receptor pathway inhibitors (ARPI), emphasize the function of the androgen-AR axis even in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). However, with the increased incidence in neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) showing resistance to ARPI, the importance of androgen-AR axis in further disease management remains elusive. Herein we review the steroidogenic pathways associated with different disease stages and discuss the potential targets for disease management after manifesting resistance to abiraterone and enzalutamide.

The Influence of Pregnancy on Female Prostate Morphophysiology in Gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)

Morphophysiological changes of the female prostate during pregnancy are still little known. Considering that this gland is highly influenced by steroid hormones, the aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of the pregnancy on female prostate morphophysiology in gerbils. Pregnant females were timed, and the prostates were analyzed at pregnancy days 6 (P6), 12 (P12), 18 (P18), and 24 (P24). Virgin females were used as the control group (C). We observed a profound change in the hormonal profile during gestation, which was marked by a high oscillation of the progesterone (P4) hormone. P4 serum levels increased, peaking at the middle of gestation, and decreased to the end of the pregnancy. The morphology of the gland in pregnant females also changed, being marked by an increase of acini lumen, and a decrease in stroma. Indeed, the acinar changes during pregnancy were followed by a significant reduction of the epithelial height, besides a change of the smooth muscle cells' morphology that became more relaxed. The number of progesterone receptor (PR) and androgen receptor (AR)-positives cells decreased with the increase of progesterone serum levels, showing an inverse relationship. Finally, we observed a reduction of epithelial proliferation and a significant increase of gland PAS-positive secretion at the end of pregnancy. Altogether, these results showed, for the first time, that the female prostate morphophysioloy is profoundly influenced by the gestational period, suggesting that the fluctuation of the P4 serum levels is the main factor influencing the gland during this period.

The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone

In clinical approaches to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer (PCa), steroidogenesis or the disruption thereof is the main thrust in treatments restricting active androgen production. Extensive studies have been undertaken focusing on testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). However, the adrenal C11-oxy C₁₉ steroid, 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4), also contributes to the active androgen pool in the prostate microenvironment, and while it has been shown to impact castration resistant prostate cancer, the C11-oxy C₁₉ steroids together with the C11-oxy C₂₁ steroids have not been studied in BPH. The study firstly investigated the metabolism of these adrenal steroids in the BPH-1 model. Comprehensive profiles identified 11keto-testosterone as the predominant active androgen in the metabolism of the C11-oxy C₁₉ steroids, and we identified, for the first time, 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol, a novel steroid in the 11OHA4-pathway. Analysis of the inactivation and reactivation of the metabolites showed that DHT is more readily inactivated than 11keto-dihydrotestosterone (11KDHT). The conversion of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone (11βOHPROG) yielded 11keto-progesterone (11KPROG), while the latter yielded 11keto-dihydroprogesterone (11KDHPROG). BPH tissue analysis identified high levels of 11β-hydroxyandrosterone (4-14 ng/g) and 11keto-androsterone (9-160 ng/g), together with androstenedione (A4; ∼7.5 ng/g). The major C11-oxy C₂₁ steroids detected were 11βOHPROG (∼46 ng/g), 11KPROG (∼130 ng/g) as well as 11KDHPROG (∼282 ng/g). While circulatory 11βOHPROG was detected below the limit of quantification, 11KPROG and 11KDHPROG were detected at 6 and 8.5 nmol/L, respectively. Glucuronide derivatives of both 11KPROG and pregnanetriol were also detected. 11OHA4 was the major free androgen in circulation at 85.9 nmol/L, ±12-fold higher than A4, together with 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol quantified at 69.3 nmol/L. Circulatory C11-oxy C₁₉ steroids levels were also significantly higher (8-fold) than the C11-oxy C₂₁ steroid levels, while the former were similar to the C₁₉ steroid levels, in contrast to levels in PCa. The study highlights the contribution of adrenal C11-oxy steroids to the androgen pool in BPH underscoring their limited reactivation and elimination, and significant inter-individual variations regarding steroid levels and conjugation. Targeted steroid metabolome analysis is critical to understanding prostate steroidogenesis and disease progression, and analysis of circulatory C11-oxy C₁₉ and C11-oxy C₂₁ steroids, together with intraprostatic levels, add to our current understanding of BPH.

Progesterone Receptor Expression in the Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer Tissues, Relation with Transcription, Growth Factors, Hormone Reception and Components of the AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Background:

Progesterone receptor (PR) is a critical regulator in reproductive tissues that controls a variety of cellular processes. The objective of the study was to study the PR expression in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancers in connection with the transcription, growth factors, AR, ERα, ERβ, and components of the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway expression.

Materials and methods:

Ninety-seven patients with prostate pathology were enrolled in the study. Forty-two patients had benign prostatic hyperplasia (BH). Fifty-five patients had locally advanced prostate cancer (PCa). The PSA level and the amount of testosterone in the serum were measured using an ELISA assay. The expression level of NF-κB p65, NF-κB p50, HIF-1, HIF-2, growth factor VEGF, VEGFR2, CAIX, as well as AR, ERα, ERβ, PR, Brn-3α, TRIM16 were quantified by RT-PCR. The protein level of Brn-3α, TRIM16 was detected by Western Blotting.

Results:

Growth in PR expression was observed in PCa tissues compared to BH ones without changes in the clinical and pathological features of the patients. An increase in PR expression was detected in patients with PCa compared to BH. Its mRNA level depended on the expression of AR, Brn-3α, and TRIM16, components of the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, transcription, and growth factors. An increase in the TRIM16 expression in the PCa tissues was noted in the case of a low PR level. We revealed the growth in PR expression was accompanied by the suppression of the signaling cascade activity, AR, Brn-3α mRNA level, and the enhanced PTEN expression in PCa tissues. The increase in PR expression in PCa led to a decrease in the level of mRNA of NF-κB, HIF-1, VEGF, and VEGFR2.

Conclusion:

In general, the data indicated the significance of the PR expression in the development of the prostate pathology that affected the cross-talk between the steroid hormone reception and signal transduction.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) as a breast cancer drug target

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, with more than 1.7 million diagnoses worldwide per annum. Metastatic breast cancer remains incurable, and the presence of triple-negative phenotypes makes targeted treatment impossible. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), most commonly associated with the metabolism of xenobiotic ligands, has emerged as a promising biological target for the treatment of this deadly disease. Ligands for the AhR can be classed as exogenous or endogenous and may have agonistic or antagonistic activity. It has been well reported that agonistic ligands may have potent and selective growth inhibition activity in a number of oncogenic cell lines, and one (aminoflavone) has progressed to phase I clinical trials for breast cancer sufferers. In this study, we examine the current state of the literature in this area and elucidate the promising advances that are being made in hijacking the cytosolic-to-nuclear pathway of the AhR for the possible future treatment of breast cancer.

The Role of Nuclear Receptors in Prostate Cancer

The nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily consists of 48 members that are divided into seven subfamilies. NRs are transcription factors that play an important role in a number of biological processes. The NR superfamily includes androgen receptor, which is a key player in prostate cancer pathogenesis, suggesting the functional roles of other NRs in prostate cancer. The findings on the roles of NRs in prostate cancer thus far have shown that several NRs such as vitamin D receptor, estrogen receptor β, and mineralocorticoid receptor play antioncogenic roles, while other NRs such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and estrogen receptor α as well as androgen receptor play oncogenic roles. However, the roles of other NRs in prostate cancer remain controversial or uninvestigated. Further research on the role of NRs in prostate cancer is required and may lead to the development of novel preventions and therapeutics for prostate cancer.

Current evidence for the involvement of sex steroid receptors and sex hormones in benign prostatic hyperplasia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a pathology that affects 50% of men over 50 years of age and 90% of men develop BPH in their eighth decade of life. In 2018, more than 1 billion men will be affected by this disease worldwide. However, the progression of BPH is highly complex and has been debated and studied for approximately four decades. Recent studies indicate that BPH can originate from the alteration of different hormone synthesis pathways, and that it is also linked to the function of hormone receptors. There is a close relationship between the progression of BPH and sexual hormones, such as progesterone, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estrogen. The focus of this study was to characterize the interactions of these hormones and investigate the direct or indirect role of each sex hormone receptor in the progression of BPH. Although several studies have described the effects of these hormones on BPH, no conclusions have been drawn regarding their role in disease progression. Here, we present a literature review on the sexual receptors possibly involved in the progression of BPH.

Cancer of Reproductive System: Receptors and Targeting Strategies

Carcinogenesis in the different organs of the reproductive system, particularly, prostate, ovarian, and cervical tissues, involves aberrant expression of various physiological receptors belonging to different superfamilies. This chapter provides insights into the physiological receptors that are associated with the genesis, progression, metastasis, management, as well as the prognosis of the cancers of the male and female reproductive systems. It also highlights the structural and binding characteristics of the highly predominant receptors, namely, androgen, estrogen, progesterone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptors, which are overexpressed in these cancers and discusses various strategies to target them.

Comparing the expression profiles of steroid hormone receptors and stromal cell markers in prostate cancer at different Gleason scores

The recent developments in anti-angiogenic and immunomodulatory drugs show that the tumour micro-environment (TME) becomes increasingly important in cancer research. Here we investigated the correlation between the Gleason score (GS) and the TME by comparing tissue expression profiles of steroid hormone receptors, cancer activated fibroblast (CAF) markers and vessel densities between different GS groups. Therefore, matched patient cohorts were composed for different GS (6-7-8). Tissue micro-arrays with 6 samples/patient were processed for immunohistochemistry. Stained slides were digitised, stroma and epithelium were selectively annotated, and all selected areas were quantitatively analysed for marker expression. The most striking findings were decreased stromal expression levels of several steroid hormone receptors, increased CAF-phenotypes and increased vessel densities in high GS prostate cancer compared to low GS prostate cancer and paired prostate non-tumour tissue. The present data reveal a complex correlation between prostate cancer differentiation and TME components and suggest that different GS can be associated with different possible actionable targets in the TME. The use of standardised digital image analysis tools generated robust and reproducible quantitative data, which is novel and more informative compared to the classic semi-quantitative and observer-dependent visual scoring of immunohistochemistry.

Progesterone Receptors in Prostate Cancer: Progesterone receptor B is the isoform associated with disease progression

The role of steroid hormones in carcinogenesis of the prostate is to some extent unraveled thorough the effect of androgen deprivation therapy on prostate cancer (PCa) progression. Other members of the steroid hormone family, such as progesterone, are also implicated in PCa, but progesterone’s role remains undefined. This study aimed to examine the distribution of progesterone receptor isoforms (PGRA, PGRB) in PCa tissue and their association with clinical endpoints. This was conducted retrospectively by collecting radical prostatectomy specimens from 535 patients. Tissue was analyzed using tissue microarray, where representative tumor areas were carefully selected. Protein expression was evaluated through immunohistochemistry, in stromal and epithelial tissue. Associations between receptor expression and clinical data were considered using statistical survival analyses. Herein, we discovered a solely stromal PGRA- and a stromal and epithelial PGRB expression. Further, a high PGRB expression in tumor tissue was associated with an unfavorable prognosis in both univariate and multivariate analyses: Biochemical failure (HR: 2.0, 95% CI: 1.45–2.76, p < 0.001) and clinical failure (HR: 2.5, 95% CI: 1.29–4.85, p = 0.006). These findings are in agreement with our previous investigation on pan-PGR, indicating that the observed negative effect of PGR is represented by PGRB.

Androgen receptor moonlighting in the prostate cancer microenvironment

Androgen receptor (AR) signaling is vital for the normal development of the prostate and is critically involved in prostate cancer (PCa). AR is not only found in epithelial prostate cells but is also expressed in various cells in the PCa-associated stroma, which constitute the tumor microenvironment (TME). In the TME, AR is expressed in fibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophils. AR expression in the TME was shown to be decreased in higher-grade and metastatic PCa, suggesting that stromal AR plays a protective role against PCa progression. With that, the functionality of AR in stromal cells appears to deviate from the receptor's classical function as described in PCa cells. However, the biological action of AR in these cells and its effect on cancer progression remains to be fully understood. Here, we systematically review the pathological, genomic and biological literature on AR actions in various subsets of prostate stromal cells and aim to better understand the consequences of AR signaling in the TME in relation to PCa development and progression.

Expression of hormone receptors in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma

OBJECTIVES

Hormone receptors play an important role in many types of cancers. Alongside factors associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, hormonal receptors may impact the tumorigenesis of oropharyngeal cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study consists of 199 consecutive oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC) patients diagnosed and treated with a curative intent. We examined androgen (AR), estrogen (ER; both alpha and beta), and progesterone receptor (PR) expressions using immunohistochemistry comparing tumor and patient characteristics.

RESULTS

AR was expressed in 16%, PR in 27% and ER-beta in 63% of the tumors. HPV- and p16-positive tumors expressed more AR and less PR than their negative counterparts. High PR expression was associated with poor disease-specific and locoregional recurrence-free survival.

CONCLUSION

AR, PR, and ER-beta are expressed in OPSCC, and AR and PR expressions are associated with HPV and p16 status. Furthermore, PR appears to have prognostic significance. This may allow us to investigate the role of anti-hormone receptors in the treatment of OPSCC.

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of castration resistant prostate cancer

With increases in the mortality rate and number of patients with prostate cancer (PCa), PCa, particularly the advanced and metastatic disease, has been the focus of a number of studies globally. Over the past seven decades, androgen deprivation therapy has been the primary therapeutic option for patients with advanced PCa; however, the majority of patients developed a poor prognosis stage of castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which eventually led to mortality. Due to CRPC being incurable, laboratory investigations and clinical studies focusing on CRPC have been conducted worldwide. Clarification of the molecular pathways that may lead to CRPC is important for discovering novel therapeutic strategies to delay or reverse the progression of disease. A sustained androgen receptor (AR) signal is still regarded as the main cause of CRPC. Increasing number of studies have proposed different potential mechanisms that cause CRPC, and this has led to the development of novel agents targeting the AR-dependent pathway or AR-independent signaling. In the present review, the major underlying mechanisms causing CRPC, including several major categories of AR-dependent mechanisms, AR bypass signaling, AR-independent mechanisms and other important hypotheses (including the functions of autophagy, PCa stem cell and microRNAs in CRPC progression), are summarized with retrospective pre-clinical or clinical trials to guide future research and therapy.

Circulating steroid hormone variations throughout different stages of prostate cancer

Steroid hormones play a central role in the maintenance and progression of prostate cancer. The androgen receptor is the primary driver of tumor cell proliferation and is activated by the androgens testosterone and 5α-dihydrotestosterone. Inhibition of this pathway through medical or surgical castration improves survival in the majority of advanced prostate cancer patients. However, conversion of adrenal androgen precursors and alternative steroidogenic pathways have been found to contribute to tumor progression and resistance to treatment. The emergence of highly accurate detection methods allows us to study steroidogenic mechanisms in more detail, even after treatment with potent steroidogenic inhibitors such as the CYP17A1 inhibitor abiraterone. A clear overview of steroid hormone levels in patients throughout the local, metastatic and castration-resistant stages of prostate cancer and treatment modalities is key toward a better understanding of their role in tumor progression and treatment resistance. In this review, we summarize the currently available data on steroid hormones that have been implicated in the various stages of prostate cancer. Additionally, this review addresses the implications of these findings, highlights important studies in this field and identifies current gaps in literature.

WOMEN IN CANCER THEMATIC REVIEW: New roles for nuclear receptors in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer has, for decades, been treated by inhibiting androgen signalling. This is effective in the majority of patients, but inevitably resistance develops and patients progress to life-threatening metastatic disease - hence the quest for new effective therapies for 'castrate-resistant' prostate cancer (CRPC). Studies into what pathways can drive tumour recurrence under these conditions has identified several other nuclear receptor signalling pathways as potential drivers or modulators of CRPC.The nuclear receptors constitute a large (48 members) superfamily of transcription factors sharing a common modular functional structure. Many of them are activated by the binding of small lipophilic molecules, making them potentially druggable. Even those for which no ligand exists or has yet been identified may be tractable to activity modulation by small molecules. Moreover, genomic studies have shown that in models of CRPC, other nuclear receptors can potentially drive similar transcriptional responses to the androgen receptor, while analysis of expression and sequencing databases shows disproportionately high mutation and copy number variation rates among the superfamily. Hence, the nuclear receptor superfamily is of intense interest in the drive to understand how prostate cancer recurs and how we may best treat such recurrent disease. This review aims to provide a snapshot of the current knowledge of the roles of different nuclear receptors in prostate cancer - a rapidly evolving field of research.