Teres minor integrity predicts outcome of latissimus dorsi tendon transfer for irreparable rotator cuff tears

Rotator cuff tear patterns: MRI appearance and its surgical relevance

A new perspective on rotator cuff anatomy has allowed a better understanding of the patterns of the different rotator cuff tears. It is essential for radiologists to be aware of these different patterns of tears and to understand how they might influence treatment and surgical approach. Our objective is to review the arthroscopy correlated magnetic resonance imaging appearance of the different types of rotator cuff tears based on current anatomical concepts.Critical relevance statement Knowledge of the characteristics of rotator cuff tears improves our communication with the surgeon and can also make it easier for the radiologist to prepare a report that guides therapeutic conduct and serves as a prognosis for the patient.Key points• There is no universally accepted classification for RC tears.• New patterns such as delamination or myotendinous junction tears have been defined.• The most difficult feature to assess in full thickness tears on MRI is the pattern.• Fatty infiltration of the RC tendons is crucial in the prognosis and outcome.• The radiological report is an effective way of communication with the surgeon.

A scoping review of tendon transfer surgeries and postsurgical physical therapy interventions in individuals with massive rotator cuff tears

OBJECTIVE

To identify tendon transfer surgeries and postsurgical physical therapy interventions in people with massive rotator cuff (RC) tears.

METHODS

The literature search was conducted in the MEDLINE, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, and PEDro databases from inception to September 2022. Studies with patients diagnosed with massive RC tears undergoing tendon transfers that reported physical therapy interventions after surgery were included. Two reviewers pooled the data into ad hoc summary tables with the following information: authors, year, study characteristics (sample size, tendon transfer surgical used, approach type, preoperative risk, deficit addressed, additional surgical interventions), and physical therapy interventions (early stage, intermediate stage, and advanced stage).

RESULTS

Forty-four articles (59.0% case series) were included, with a total sample of 1213 participants. The most frequently used surgery was the isolated tendon transfer of the latissimus dorsi (49.1%). Most of the studies reported three main stages of physical therapy interventions after tendon transfer surgery: early stage (lasting 5-6 weeks), intermediate stage (started at 7-12 weeks), and advanced stage (started at 12 weeks). Physical therapy interventions included passive, active-assisted, resisted therapeutic exercise, and hydrotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The evidence regarding physical therapy interventions after RC tendon transfer surgery is limited to the number and duration of the stages and general characteristics without specifying the type and dose of the interventions. Future research with high methodological quality should integrate more detailed rehabilitation protocols to better guide therapeutic decisions after RC transfer surgery.

Patient-reported outcome tools and baseline scores vary by country and region for arthroscopic repair of massive rotator cuff tears: a systematic review

Background

Different patient-reported outcome (PRO) tools are used in patients with arthroscopic rotator cuff repair (ARCR) which complicates outcome comparisons. The purpose of this systematic review was to compare PRO usage and baseline scores across world regions and countries in patients with ARCR of massive rotator cuff tears (MRCT).

Methods

A systematic review was performed on ARCR for MRCT. The search was conducted from September to November of 2022 using the MEDLINE database for articles published in the last 15 years. Thirty-seven articles were included after initial screening and full-text review. In each article, PRO usage, baseline scores, and country of origin were collected. PRO usage was reported in percentages and baseline scores were normalized for each region to facilitate comparisons. Normalization was performed using the PRO means from each article. These averages were converted to fractions using the worst and best possible scores. These were combined into a single numerical value, expressed as a decimal from 0 to 1, using the total sample size for each tool per region. Values closer to 0 represent worse functional outcomes.

Results

Thirty-two percent (n = 12) of articles were from Asia, 43.2% (n = 16) from Europe, 5.4% (n = 2) from the Middle East, and 18.9% (n = 7) from North America. The most commonly reported PRO tools were American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) in 19 papers, Constant-Murley Score (CMS) in 26 papers, Visual Analog Scale for pain (VAS) in 19 papers, and University of California in Los Angeles (UCLA) in 11 papers. ASES was reported in 51% of articles with 63% being from Asia (n = 12) compared to 21% from North America (n = 4). CMS was reported in 70% of studies with 58% being from Europe. Upon normalization, the preoperative score ranged from 0.30 to 0.44. Europe (0.39), and North America (0.40) showed similar scores. The lowest and highest scores were seen in the Middle East (0.3) and Asia (0.44) respectively.

Conclusion

There is no standardized method to report outcomes in patients undergoing ARCR for MRCT. Great variation in usage exists in PROs which complicates data comparison between world regions. With normalization, baseline scores where similar among Asia, North America, and Europe, and lowest in the Middle East.

Clinical and Radiological Outcomes of Arthroscopic Superior Capsular Reconstruction Versus Primary Rotator Cuff Repair in Massive Rotator Cuff Tears: A Propensity Score-Matched Study

BACKGROUND

Arthroscopic superior capsular reconstruction (aSCR) has emerged as a treatment option for managing massive rotator cuff tears (MRCTs) given the unpredictable results after an arthroscopic rotator cuff repair (aRCR). Yet, few comparative studies of aSCR and aRCR have been conducted.

PURPOSE

To compare the clinical and radiological outcomes between aRCR and aSCR in patients with MRCT.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

A total of 163 cases of MRCT from 2010 to 2020 with follow-up ≥2 years were retrospectively reviewed. Among them, 102 had aRCR and 61 had aSCR using fascia lata autograft. Propensity score matching was used to select controls matched for age, sex, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, preoperative American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation score, Constant score, pain visual analog scale (pVAS) score, range of motion (ROM), tear size, global fatty degeneration index, and acromiohumeral distance (AHD). Last, 33 cases in each group were selected after propensity score matching. Radiological assessment was conducted using serial postoperative magnetic resonance imaging. Pre- and postoperative findings-including American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons, pVAS, Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation, and Constant scores and ROM-were assessed to compare clinical outcomes. For radiological outcomes, global fatty degeneration index, AHD, and healing rate were evaluated. Healing failure was defined as Sugaya classification IV or V in the aRCR group, as compared with a full-thickness tear of the graft in the aSCR group, which corresponded to Sugaya classification IV or V.

RESULTS

Postoperative clinical outcomes were significantly improved at the final follow-up in both groups. In the aSCR group, postoperative forward flexion, pVAS, and AHD were significantly improved as compared with the aRCR group (mean, 161° vs 148° [P = .02]; 1.03 vs 1.64 [P = .047]; 7.00 vs 5.23 mm [P < .001], respectively). The healing rate was 20 of 33 (60.6%) for aRCR and 29 of 33 (87.9%) for aSCR (P = .022).

CONCLUSION

aSCR and aRCR are effective and reliable treatment options for MRCT. However, when compared with aRCR, aSCR showed improved clinical outcomes, including pVAS score, postoperative ROM, and favorable radiological findings, including AHD and a higher healing rate.

Clinical outcomes in latissimus dorsi transfer single- versus double-incision technique

BACKGROUND/HYPOTHESIS

In patients with irreparable postero-superior rotator cuff lesions, a latissimus dorsi transfer (LDT) is performed. For this surgery, different techniques are used. In this study, we aim to compare the patient's functional outcome after treatment with modified L'Episcopo "single-incision" and modified Gerber "double-incision" technique for LDT.

METHODS

44 patients with irreparable postero-superior rotator cuff ruptures, refractory to physiotherapeutic treatment were included. 21 patients were treated using a modified L'Episcopo "single-incision", 23 patients with modified Gerber "double-incision" surgical approach. All patients had full-thickness tears of at least two complete tendons, and all had fully functioning deltoid and subscapularis muscles. Preoperatively, there were statistically significant differences between the two groups in all preoperative CMS sub-parameters except "power" and "pain". In the postoperative follow-up, a functional assessment using "Constant-Murley Score" (CMS) and "Age- and gender-related CMS" was conducted.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective-comparative trial.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE III

RESULTS

There were no statistically significant differences between age, sex and time of follow-up between the two study groups (p > 0.05). The mean age was 59.2(± 6.3) years, and the mean follow-up time was 45.4(± 9.3) months for both groups taken together. Mean CMS improved for both groups together from 24.2 ± 8.2 points prior to surgery, to 62.8 ± 17.4 points after a mean follow-up time of 45.4 ± 9.3 months post surgery. The patients treated with "single-incision" surgery (n = 21) gained significantly (p < 0.001) more in CMS and all CMS-sub-scoring parameters except power and pain, compared to the patients treated with "double-incision" technique (n = 23).

CONCLUSION

This survey shows appealing post-operative functional outcome in patients with irreparable postero-superior rotator cuff lesions treated with two different techniques for LDT. We believe that the presentation of these methods and their results might encourage shoulder surgeons to implement these techniques. Especially the "single-incision" LDT surgery might be a more accustomed technique for many shoulder surgeons well trained in the deltopectoral approach.

Does the Fatty Infiltration Influence the Re-tear Rate and Functional Outcome After Rotator Cuff Repair? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Purpose

Fatty infiltration (FI) of the rotator cuff muscles occurs after rotator cuff tears (RCTs), which may affect the outcome of the repair procedure. This study aimed to determine the relationship between preoperative FI and the rate of re-tear and functional outcomes after rotator cuff repair.

Methods

Computerized databases, including PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library database were searched for studies published from the inception date to January 2022. Two reviewers independently screened the titles and abstracts using prespecified criteria. Articles were included if they clearly stated the effect of varying degrees of FI on the outcome after shoulder cuff repair. Comparison was performed by different degrees of FI analysis: no FI is grade 0-1, FI is grade 2 and above. Statistical analysis was performed using Review Manager 5.4.1 software.

Results

A total of 16 articles involving 1383 patients from 8 countries were included. The follow-up period ranged from 8 to 121 months. In terms of re-tear rate: patients with preoperative FI had significantly higher rates of re-tear compared with patients without FI (OR 4.60, 95% CI 2.22-9.54, p < 0.0001), supraspinatus FI VS no FI (OR 2.06, 95% CI 1.00-4.24, p = 0.05), infraspinatus FI VS no FI (OR 2.42, 95% CI 1.19-4.91, p = 0.01). In terms of functional scoring: patients without FI had higher postoperative Constant-Murley (Constant) scores than those with FI (MD - 5.06, 95% CI - 9.40 to - 0.72, p = 0.02), there was no clear evidence that preoperative FI was related to postoperative American Society of shoulder and elbow physicians scores and the University of California at Los Angeles scores and range of motion.

Conclusion

FI after RCTs significantly increases the risk of postoperative re-tear and leads to worse functional scores, especially FI of the infraspinatus muscle. However, FI does not seem to reduce postoperative range of motion.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43465-022-00807-0.

Early postoperative recovery comparisons of superior capsule reconstruction to tendon transfers

BACKGROUND

The management of massive posterosuperior rotator cuff tears is controversial, with no gold standard. Two recently developed techniques that have shown promising initial results include arthroscopic superior capsular reconstruction (SCR) and tendon transfers (latissimus or lower trapezius). However, there remains a scarcity of studies examining each procedure's early postoperative clinical outcomes individually or in comparison to each other. The purpose of this study is to compare the early postoperative recovery outcomes of tendon transfers (TTs) to SCR.

METHODS

Using the surgical outcomes system global database (Arthrex Inc.), we assessed the postoperative recovery outcomes for all patients who had outcomes recorded at least 6 months after SCR or TT. The time points analyzed included preoperative and postoperative (2 weeks, 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years). The outcomes analyzed included pain visual analog scale (VAS) score, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons Standardized Shoulder Assessment Form (ASES) score, VR-12 physical, and Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation (SANE).

RESULTS

Overall, 163 patients underwent SCR and 24 arthroscopically assisted TT. The mean age for SCR and TT was 60 and 56 years, respectively. Postoperative recovery curves demonstrate that both procedures produced improved outcomes at each postoperative time point compared to preoperative. The pain and functional outcomes measures, including VAS, ASES, SANE, and VR-12 physical, were comparable for TT and SCRs, with similar recovery curves between the 2 techniques. Ultimately at 2 years postoperatively, there were no significant differences between the 2 techniques.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of the early outcomes associated with arthroscopic treatment of massive posterosuperior rotator cuff tears demonstrated that the arthroscopically assisted tendon transfers and arthroscopic superior capsular reconstruction had similar pain and functional outcomes throughout the 2-year postoperative recovery period. Overall, the process of recovery appears equivalent between the 2 techniques. Future studies are needed to assess the outcomes of each technique and specific indications in an attempt to delineate an algorithm for the treatment of irreparable rotator cuff tears.

Management of Irreparable Posterosuperior Rotator Cuff Tears-A Current Concepts Review and Proposed Treatment Algorithm by the AGA Shoulder Committee

Posterosuperior rotator cuff tears range among the most common causes of shoulder complaints. While non-operative treatment is typically reserved for the elderly patient with low functional demands, surgical treatment is considered the gold standard for active patients. More precisely, an anatomic rotator cuff repair (RCR) is considered the most desirable treatment option and should be generally attempted during surgery. If an anatomic RCR is impossible, the adequate choice of treatment for irreparable rotator cuff tears remains a matter of debate among shoulder surgeons. Following a critical review of the contemporary literature, the authors suggest the following evidence- and experience-based treatment recommendation. In the non-functional, osteoarthritic shoulder, treatment strategies in the management of irreparable posterosuperior RCT include debridement-based procedures and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty as the treatment of choice. Joint-preserving procedures aimed at restoring glenohumeral biomechanics and function should be reserved for the non-osteoarthritic shoulder. Prior to these procedures, however, patients should be counseled about deteriorating results over time. Recent innovations such as the superior capsule reconstruction and the implantation of a subacromial spacer show promising short-term results, yet future studies with long-term follow-up are required to derive stronger recommendations.

Teres Minor Muscle Atrophy: Anatomy, Patterns, and Clinical Manifestations

➢

Isolated teres minor atrophy has a reported incidence in the literature of 3% to 6.2%.

➢

There are 2 distinct muscular bundles of the teres minor that have varying degrees of atrophy. Fatty degeneration of the medial-dorsal component exceeds that of the lateral-ventral component in most cases.

➢

A healthy and intact teres minor muscle is of functional importance in the setting of a complete infraspinatus tear because it becomes the only external rotator of the shoulder joint.

➢

Clinical and functional outcomes after rotator cuff repair and reverse shoulder arthroplasty for patients with teres minor atrophy in the setting of a rotator cuff tear are still controversial.

The influence of preoperative rotator cuff cross-sectional area and strength on postoperative outcomes in reverse shoulder arthroplasty

BACKGROUND

Although preoperative function and range of motion (ROM) are determinants of postoperative outcome following reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA), there is limited data on the influence of preoperative rotator cuff status. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between preoperative rotator cuff physiologic cross-sectional area (PCSA) and strength on postoperative RSA outcome.

METHODS

A retrospective review was conducted on 53 primary RSAs from a multicenter database performed between 2015 and 2019 using a 135° humeral neck-shaft angle. Preoperative magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomographic scans were used to assess the PCSA of the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons Standardized Shoulder Assessment Form (ASES) scores, ROM, and strength were measured preoperatively and at a minimum of 2 years postoperatively. Correlation coefficients were used to determine the relationship between variables.

RESULTS

There were no significant correlations between preoperative PCSA of any rotator cuff muscles and postoperative ASES scores. Preoperative subscapularis PCSA positively correlated with change in belly press (BP) strength following RSA (⍴ = 0.37, P = .006). Preoperative abduction strength was significantly correlated with postoperative abduction strength (⍴ = 0.297, P = .006). Preoperative external rotation (ER) strength was significantly correlated with postoperative ER (⍴ = 0.378, P = .005) and abduction (⍴ = 0.304; P = .032) strength. Preoperative BP strength negatively correlated with postoperative ASES (⍴ = -0.283, P = .042) but positively correlated with postoperative BP (⍴ = 0.411, P = .001) and abduction (⍴ = 0.367, P = .009) strength.

CONCLUSION

With the use of a 135° humeral implant, there is limited correlation between preoperative PCSA and postoperative outcomes 2 years following RSA; the only significant correlation was between preoperative subscapularis PCSA and postoperative BP strength. Preoperative strength is positively correlated with postoperative strength but not ROM or ASES scores.

Biomechanical comparison of lower trapezius and latissimus dorsi transfer for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears using a dynamic shoulder model

BACKGROUND

In the setting of irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears (PSRCTs), lower trapezius transfer (LTT) may be anatomically better positioned for restoring the muscular force couple compared with latissimus dorsi transfer (LDT). The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of LTT and LDT on glenohumeral kinematics using a dynamic shoulder model.

METHODS

Ten fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders (mean age: 56.5 ± 17.2 years) were tested using a dynamic shoulder simulator. The maximum abduction angle (MAA), superior humeral head migration (SHM), and cumulative deltoid forces (CDFs) were compared across 4 conditions: (1) native; (2) irreparable PSRCT; (3) LTT using an Achilles tendon allograft; and (4) LDT. MAA and SHM were measured using 3-dimensional motion tracking. CDF was recorded in real time throughout the dynamic abduction motion by load cells connected to actuators.

RESULTS

Compared to the native state, the PSRCT resulted in a significant decrease (Δ-24.1°; P < .001) in MAA, with a subsequent significant increase after LTT (Δ13.1°; P < .001) and LDT (Δ8.9°; P < .001). LTT achieved a significantly greater MAA than LDT (Δ4.2°; P = .004). Regarding SHM, both LTT (Δ-9.4 mm; P < .001) and LDT (Δ-5.0 mm; P = .008) demonstrated a significant decrease compared with the PSRCT state. LTT also achieved significantly less SHM compared with the LDT (Δ-4.4 mm; P = .011). Further, only the LTT resulted in a significant decrease in CDF compared with the PSRCT state (Δ-21.3 N; P = .048), whereas LTT and LDT showed similar CDF (Δ-11.3 N; P = .346). However, no technique was able to restore the MAA, SHM, and CDF of the native shoulder (P < .001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

LTT and LDT both achieved a significant increase in MAA along with significantly less SHM compared with the PSRCT state. Although LTT required significantly less compensatory deltoid forces compared with the PSRCT state, this was not observed for the LDT. Further, the LTT prevented loss of abduction motion and SHM more sufficiently. In the challenging treatment of irreparable PSRCTs, LTT may restore native glenohumeral kinematics more sufficiently, potentially leading to improved postoperative functional outcomes.

Management of Failed Rotator Cuff Repairs: A Review

Failed rotator cuff repairs present a complex issue for treating surgeons. Many methods of management exist for this pathology including revision repair with biologic augmentation, repairs with allograft, tendon transfers, superior capsular reconstruction, balloon arthroplasty, bursal acromial reconstruction, and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty. This review discusses the current literature associated with these management options.

Latissimus dorsi transfer vs. lower trapezius transfer for posterosuperior irreparable rotator cuff tears

BACKGROUND

Latissimus dorsi transfer (LDT) and lower trapezius transfer (LTT) are effective treatment options for posterosuperior irreparable rotator cuff tears (IRCTs) in relatively young patients and elderly high-demand patients without arthritic changes. However, the optimal treatment option for patients with posterosuperior IRCT remains a subject of ongoing debate. This study aimed to compare clinical and radiologic short-term outcomes between arthroscopic-assisted LDT (aLDT) and arthroscopic-assisted LTT (aLTT) in patients with posterosuperior IRCT.

METHODS

This retrospective crossover study included patients who underwent aLDT or aLTT for posterosuperior IRCT and who had a minimum clinical follow-up time of 2 years after undergoing surgical procedures between January 2012 and June 2019. A total of 90 patients with posterosuperior IRCT were divided into 2 groups according to the surgical procedure: group D underwent aLDT (n = 48) and group T underwent aLTT (n = 42). Clinical outcomes comprised the visual analog scale score for pain, active shoulder range of motion (ROM), American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons Standardized Shoulder Assessment Form (ASES) score, and activities of daily living that require active external rotation (ADLER) score. Radiologic outcomes included acromiohumeral distance (AHD). The progression of arthritis was evaluated using Hamada grade. Graft integrity was assessed using postoperative magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

Significant improvements in clinical outcomes were observed in both groups. Active shoulder external rotation (P < .001), postoperative ASES score (P < .001), and ADLER score (P < .001) were significantly higher in group T than in group D. AHD at 2-year follow-up was significantly higher in group T than in group D (P < .001). The rate of progression of arthritis was significantly higher in group D (31.3%) than in group T (7.1%) (P = .031).

CONCLUSIONS

Although both LDT and LTT improved the overall clinical outcomes of patients with posterosuperior IRCT, LTT was superior to LDT in terms of shoulder ROM, functional improvement, and progression of arthritis. Our findings indicate that LTT may be the preferred treatment option for posterosuperior IRCT in relatively active and young patients.

Resultados da transferência do grande dorsal alongado com enxerto tendíneo homólogo por via delto-peitoral para lesões póstero-superiores irreparáveis do manguito rotador

Objective  The primary aim of the present study is to evaluate the functional results of a modification to the latissimus dorsi (LD) transfer around the shoulder for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears. The secondary aim is to evaluate variables that might influence the outcomes.

Surgical Technique  Through a single deltopectoral approach, the LD tendon is detached, reinforced, and elongated with a tendinous allograft, transferred around the humerus, and fixed superolaterally to the greater tuberosity and anteriorly to the subscapularis.

Methods  Retrospective functional evaluation of 16 cases. The average follow-up was 21 months (12–47). The postoperative results (at last follow-up) were compared with the preoperative ones, as well as to other pre, intra, and postoperative variables.

Results  All (but one) patients were satisfied. Average University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) score increased from 11.6 (8–16) to 27.3 (17–30) ( p  < 0.001). Improvements of shoulder pain, function, and strength achieved statistical significance ( p  < 0.001). Nonetheless, normal strength was never restored. Average active range of motion improved as follows: forward elevation, from 106° (60–140°) to 145° (130–160°) ( p  < 0.001); external rotation from 30° (0° to 60°) to 54° (40–70°) ( p  < 0.001); and internal rotation from L1 (gluteus to T7) to T10 (T12–T3) ( p  < 0.05). No complication has occurred. Preoperative pseudoparesis was reverted in all the six cases in which it was present. None of the variables analyzed influenced the outcomes, including pseudoparesis.

Conclusions  At early follow-up, this technique is safe and effective at recovering from pseudoparesis and at improving shoulder pain, function, and strength.

Tendon transfers for massive rotator cuff tears

Massive rotator cuff tears (MRCTs) present a particular challenge due to high rates of retear that can range from 18 to 94%, failure of healing after repair, and potential for irreparability.

Management of MRCTs must take into consideration the patient's characteristics, clinical examamination and expectation, number and quality of muscle tendons units involved.

Conservative treatment, arthroscopic long head of the biceps tenotomy, cuff debridement, partial repair, and superior capsule reconstruction are viable solutions to treat selected patients.

The goal of tendon transfers is to achieve stable kinematic by restoring rotational strength and force coupling of the shoulder joint.

The ideal candidate is a young, motivated patient with small degenerative changes of the glenohumeral joint, a massive irreparable cuff tear, significant atrophy, fatty infiltration, and functional deficit.

Patients with posterosuperior massive tears have impaired shoulder function with external rotation weakness and eventually lag sign If the teres minor is affected.

Latissimus dorsi transfer is the most used with results lasting for long follow-up and lower Trapezius transfer is becoming a surgical option. For anterosuperior tears, there is still controversial if pectoralis major is the best option when compared to latissimus dorsi although this last has a similar vector force with the supraspinatus tendon.

Complications associated with tendon transfers include neurovascular injury, infection, and rupture of the transferred tendon.

Arthroscopic debridement for management of massive, irreparable rotator cuff tears: a systematic review of outcomes

Background

Surgical management of massive irreparable rotator cuff tears remains controversial. Arthroscopic debridement (AD) has shown promising results especially in the population older than 65 years; however, there is no consensus on the benefits of various AD procedures. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the functional midterm to long-term outcomes in patients treated with AD in combination with subacromial decompression, biceps tenotomy, tuberoplasty, or bursectomy, without repair of the rotator cuff tear.

Methods

A comprehensive search was performed in PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), and Cochrane databases for studies reporting clinical outcomes of AD of massive rotator cuff tears. Quality was determined using the Methodological Index for Nonrandomized Studies (MINORS) criteria by two independent reviewers. Pooled frequency-weighted means and standard deviations were calculated for patient-reported outcomes.

Results

Sixteen articles containing 643 patients and 662 shoulders met the eligibility criteria. The mean age at the time of surgery was 65.9 ± 4.4 years with a mean follow-up period of 46.5 ± 27.3 months. There was notable clinically significant improvement across all patient-reported outcome scores postoperatively: Constant 70.4 ± 8.9 (P value = .06), University of California, Los Angeles ultrasonography 26.7 ± 5.2 (P value = .001), American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score 71.7 ± 2.1 (P value = .12), Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand score 35.3, and visual analog score 1.7 ± 0.9. Forty-nine patients (7%) required reoperation, which most commonly was a reverse total shoulder arthroplasty for the development of rotator cuff arthropathy.

Conclusion

Arthroscopic debridement with a combination of subacromial decompression, tuberoplasty, subacromial bursectomy, and biceps tenotomy, for treatment of massive irreparable rotator cuff tears, produces good functional outcomes and improvement in pain at mid to long term follow up for the low-demand population greater than 65 years of age looking for pain relief over substantial increase in function.

Mid-term results of arthroscopically assisted latissimus dorsi transfer for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears

BACKGROUND

With progress in arthroscopic surgery, latissimus dorsi transfer for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears (RCTs) has become a reliable all-arthroscopic or arthroscopically assisted procedure. The mid-term results of arthroscopically assisted latissimus dorsi transfer (aLDT) are scarce in the literature. The purpose of this study was to report our clinical and radiographic mid-term results of aLDT for irreparable posterosuperior RCTs.

METHODS

Thirty-one consecutive patients with a mean age of 55.5 years (range, 38-73 years) at the time of aLDT were evaluated after a mean of 3.5 years (range, 2-5 years). All patients had irreparable, full-thickness tears of at least the complete supraspinatus, with or without infraspinatus tendons, and 12 patients (39%) had undergone previous rotator cuff repair (RCR). A concomitant upper-third subscapularis repair was needed at the time of aLDT in 7 patients (23%). Mid-term results were assessed clinically and radiographically (including magnetic resonance imaging).

RESULTS

At final follow-up, 4 patients with failure (13%) had undergone revision to reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) essentially for untreatable pain. Patients with revision to RTSA had significantly higher preoperative pain levels (Constant pain score, 6 points vs. 11 points; P = .032) and lower Constant activity scores (2 points vs. 5 points, P = .017) than the remaining 27 patients. Patients with failed previous RCRs had significantly inferior results compared with patients without previous repair (mean Subjective Shoulder Value, 67% vs. 88%; P = .035). For the 27 patients without revision, the mean relative Constant score improved from 63% to 76% (P = .032), the Constant pain score, from 10.5 to 12.7 points (P = .012), and the Subjective Shoulder Value, from 43% to 77% (P < .001). Significant progression of glenohumeral arthropathy by 2 or more grades according to the Hamada classification was observed in 13 of the 27 patients (48%), but there was no significant difference in clinical outcomes between the patients with arthropathy (n = 13) and those without it (n = 14, P = .923).

CONCLUSIONS

The mid-term results of aLDT for irreparable posterosuperior RCTs were associated with significant improvements in objective and subjective outcome measures. The failure rate leading to conversion to RTSA was relatively high in this cohort. The failures were associated with unusually intense pain in low-demand individuals and/or revision of failed RCR. Long-term results of aLDT are needed to evaluate the effect of this procedure on the progression of osteoarthritis.

Clinical outcomes of latissimus dorsi tendon transfer and superior capsular reconstruction for irreparable rotator cuff tears: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Functionally irreparable rotator cuff tears (FIRCTs) present an ongoing challenge to the orthopedic surgeon. The aim of this systematic review was to critically compare the outcomes of three latissimus dorsi tendon transfer (LDT) techniques and two superior capsular reconstruction (SCR) techniques in treatment of FIRCTs.

METHODS

A systematic review of studies evaluating the outcome of FIRCT treatment was performed via a search of four databases in April 2020. Each included study was reviewed in duplicate by two reviewers for evaluation of methodological quality. The treatments analyzed were arthroscopic LDT (aLDT), open LDT Gerber technique (oLDTG), open LDT L'Episcopo technique (oLDTL), SCR with allograft (SCR-Allo), and SCR with autograft (SCR-TFL). Demographics, range of motion, patient-reported outcome measures, radiographic acromiohumeral distance (AHD), treatment failures, and revisions were recorded.

RESULTS

Forty-six studies (1287 shoulders) met criteria for inclusion. Twenty-three studies involved open latissimus transfer, with 445 shoulders undergoing oLDTG with mean follow-up of 63.2 months and 60 patients undergoing oLDTL with mean follow-up of 51.8 months. Ten studies (n = 369, F/U 29.2mo) reported on aLDT. Seven studies (n = 253, F/U 16.9mo) concerned SCR-Allo, and six studies (n = 160, F/U 32.mo) reported on SCR-TFL. Range of motion and subjective outcome scores improved in all techniques with no differences across treatments. Both SCR methods provided greater improvement in AHD than open LDT methods (p < 0.01). The re-tear rates were lower in both oLDT groups compared to the SCR groups (p = 0.03). Clinical failure rates were higher in the SCR-Allo and oLDTG groups, while overall treatment failures were lowest in oLDTL compared to all four other groups.

CONCLUSION

SCR techniques were associated with improved short-term radiographic acromiohumeral distance, while the open LDT techniques had lower tendon re-tear and treatment failure rates. All techniques resulted in improved clinical outcomes and pain relief compared to preoperative levels with no differences across techniques.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE IV

Systematic review of case series and cohort studies.

Bilateral total shoulder arthroplasty: A systematic review of clinical outcomes

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to describe the clinical outcomes following bilateral total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA).

METHODS

A systematic search of the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases following PRISMA guidelines was performed. English-language literature published from 2010 to 2018 analyzing bilateral TSA (anatomic and/or reverse) with a minimum one-year follow-up was reviewed by two independent reviewers. Study quality was evaluated with the Modified Coleman Methodology Score and the methodological index for non-randomized studies score.

RESULTS

Eleven studies (1 Level II, 3 Level III, 7 Level IV) with 292 patients were included. Two studies reported on bilateral anatomic TSA (n = 54), six reported on bilateral reverse TSA (RTSA; n = 168), two reported on anatomic TSA with contralateral RTSA (TSA/RTSA; n = 31), and one compared bilateral anatomic TSA (n = 26) and bilateral RTSA (n = 13). Among studies, mean revision rate ranged from 0% to 10.53% and mean complication rate ranged from 4.9% to 31.3%. At final follow-up, patients experienced significant overall improvements in range of motion and patient-reported outcome score measurements. However, bilateral anatomic TSA resulted in greater improvements in external rotation compared to bilateral RTSA. Overall patient satisfaction was 91.0%.

CONCLUSION

The available data indicate that bilateral TSA allows for functional and pain improvements and result in high patient satisfaction.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Current Options in Tendon Transfers for Irreparable Posterosuperior Rotator Cuff Tears

Massive irreparable posterosuperior rotator-cuff tears are debilitating lesions that usually require surgical treatment. Even though there is no consensus regarding the best surgical technique, tendinous transfers around the shoulder are the most commonly performed procedures. The latissimus dorsi tendon remains the most commonly used, but different modifications to the original technique have been shown to minimize complications and to improve functional results and satisfaction. Other techniques, such as the transfer of the lower trapezius tendon, are promising and should be considered, especially for patients with isolated loss of external rotation. The present paper is a literary review regarding tendon transfers for irreparable posterosuperior rotator-cuff tears.

Reliable diagnosis of posterosuperior rotator cuff tears requires a combination of clinical tests

PURPOSE

Clinical diagnosis of posterosuperior rotator cuff tears remains uncertain due to a lack of evidence-based consensus. This review aimed to compare the diagnostic accuracy of commonly used clinical tests for posterosuperior rotator cuff tears.

METHODS

The authors conducted an electronic literature search using Medline, Embase and the Cochrane library/Central, to identify original clinical studies reporting diagnostic accuracy of clinical tests to diagnose the presence of posterosuperior rotator cuff tears involving the infraspinatus, supraspinatus and/or teres minor.

RESULTS

The electronic literature search returned 1981 records, of which 14 articles were eligible. Among 17 tests included in the systematic review, 6 tests were eligible for meta-analysis: drop arm sign, Jobe test, external rotation lag sign, Hawkins-Kennedy test, Neer test and painful arc abduction test. According to QUADAS-2 criteria, risk of bias was low in 1 study, moderate in 2 and high in 4. The highest pooled sensitivity was 0.77 (CI 0.67-0.85), for the Jobe test, while the lowest pooled sensitivity was 0.38 (CI 0.01-0.98), for the drop arm sign.

CONCLUSIONS

The Jobe test had the best pooled sensitivity, while the drop arm sign had the best pooled specificity. As no single clinical test is sufficiently reliable to diagnose posterosuperior rotator cuff tears, clinicians should consider various combinations of patient characteristics and clinical tests, as well as imaging modalities, to confirm diagnosis and select the appropriate treatment option. More reliable clinical diagnosis of posterosuperior rotator cuff tears could reduce the reliance on magnetic resonance imaging or arthrography and their associated costs and waiting times.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

A low teres minor index of trophicity negatively impacts the functional outcomes of reverse shoulder arthroplasty

INTRODUCTION

The teres minor (TM) participates in active external rotation (ER) after reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA). The TM index of trophicity (T2/G) measured on CT scan is a predictor of poor results in patients who have irreparable rotator cuff tears. The aim of this study was to evaluate how T2/G impacts the functional outcomes of RSA in the context of massive rotator cuff tears. We hypothesized that a T2/G less than 0.75 is a predictor of worse functional outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study involved 32 shoulders in 26 patients (mean age 71 years) who underwent RSA for cuff tear arthropathy and had a minimum follow-up of 1 year (mean 3 years). T2/G is the ratio between T2 (TM thickness) and G (maximum glenoid cavity thickness) on preoperative axial CT slices. Clinical examination at the final assessment involved determining the Constant score, the shoulder joint's range of motion and the Subjective Shoulder Value (SSV).

RESULTS

Eight shoulders had a T2/G of less than 0.75 (group 1) while 24 shoulders had an index above 0.75 (group 2). These two groups were similar preoperatively. The Constant-Murley score in group 1 was significantly lower than in group 2 (50.2 points versus 59.7 points, p<0.05). Group 1 had a postoperative improvement of 1̊ in their ER with elbow at side while group 2 had a 16.5̊ improvement (p=0.002). Group 1 had a postoperative loss of 6.3̊ in their ER in 90̊ abduction while group 2 had a 21.7̊ improvement (p=0.001). The SSV at the final assessment was 69% in group 1 versus 79% in group 2 (p=0.094).

CONCLUSION

Having a TM index of trophicity below 0.75 is a negative predictor of clinical outcomes due to lack of ER after RSA.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Latissimus dorsi tendon transfers: a historical journey

Several latissimus dorsi tendon transfer techniques for shoulder problems have been previously described and developed. These techniques involve the transfer in obstetric palsy, transfer in irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears and subscapularis tears, and transfer in reverse shoulder arthroplasty. We detail the differences in planning and surgery and the need for different approaches. This historical and technical description provided in this study will benefit surgeons wishing to use the procedure.

Chronic Pseudoparalysis Needs to Be Distinguished From Pseudoparesis: A Structural and Biomechanical Analysis

BACKGROUND

Chronic pseudoparalysis is generally defined as the inability to actively elevate the arm above 90° with free passive range of motion and no neurological deficits. It has been suggested that this arbitrary cutoff needs to be refined.

PURPOSE

To analyze whether there are structural and biomechanical differences in patients with chronic pseudoparalysis and those with chronic pseudoparesis.

STUDY DESIGN

Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, 50 patients with chronic massive rotator cuff tears (mRCTs; ≥2 tendons) and free passive and active scapular plane abduction <90° were divided into 2 groups: pseudoparalysis group (n = 24; active scapular plane abduction, <45°) and pseudoparesis group (n = 26; active scapular plane abduction, >45° and <90°). Radiographic measurements included the critical shoulder angle, acromiohumeral distance, posterior acromial tilt, anterior and posterior acromial coverages, and posterior acromial height on outlet views. Measurements on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) included fatty infiltration of the rotator cuff muscles, anterior (subscapularis) and posterior (infraspinatus/teres minor) tear extensions, and global (anterior + posterior) tear extension in the parasagittal plane. A published musculoskeletal model was used to simulate the effect of different mRCTs on the muscle force required for scapular plane abduction.

RESULTS

Plain radiographs revealed no differences between patients with chronic pseudoparalysis and those with pseudoparesis. MRI assessment showed significant differences between patients with chronic pseudoparalysis and those with pseudoparesis with respect to fatty infiltration of the subscapularis (2.9 vs 1.6; P < .001) and infraspinatus (3.6 vs 3.0; P < .001) muscles, and anterior (-23° vs 4°; P < .001), posterior (-23° vs -14°; P = .034), and global rotator cuff (225° vs 190°; P < .001) tear extensions. The anterior tear extension in patients with chronic pseudoparalysis always involved more than 50% of the subscapularis, which was associated with an odds ratio of 5 for inability to actively abduct more than 45°. The biomechanical model was unable to find a combination of muscles that could balance the arm in space when the tear extended beyond the supraspinatus and the cranial subscapularis.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms that chronic pseudoparalysis and pseudoparesis are associated with different structural lesions. In the setting of a chronic mRCT, involvement of more than 50% of the subscapularis tendon with fatty infiltration of stage 3 is associated with pseudoparalysis of active scapular plane abduction <45°. The key function of the subscapularis was confirmed in the biomechanical model.

How common is fatty infiltration of the teres minor in patients with shoulder pain? A review of 7,367 consecutive MRI scans

Purpose

The teres minor is particularly important for activities that require external rotation in abduction in the settings of both rotator cuff tears and reverse shoulder arthroplasty. This study sought to assess the incidence of teres minor fatty infiltration in a large cohort of consecutive patients evaluated with shoulder MRI for shoulder pain and to identify all associated pathologies in an effort to determine the various potential etiologies of teres minor involvement.

Methods

A retrospective review of 7,376 non-contrast shoulder MRI studies performed between 2010 and 2015 were specifically evaluated for teres minor fatty infiltration. Studies were reviewed by two fellowship trained musculoskeletal radiologists. Muscle atrophy was graded on a 3-point scale according to Fuchs and Gerber. The remaining rotator cuff tendons and muscles, biceps tendon, labrum, and joint surfaces were assessed on MRI as well.

Results

In this series, 209 (2.8%) shoulders were noted to have fatty infiltration of the teres minor. The rate of isolated fatty infiltration of the teres minor was 0.4%. Concomitant deltoid muscle atrophy was common, and occurred in 68% of the shoulders with fatty infiltration of the teres minor. Tearing of the teres minor tendon was extremely rare.

Conclusion

Fatty infiltration of the teres minor can occur in isolation, be associated with deltoid muscle atrophy only, or occur in the setting of rotator cuff full tears. Thus, fatty infiltration of the teres minor may be related to a neurologic process or disuse. Further long term longitudinal studies are necessary to be elucidate the etiologies.

Level of Evidence

Level IV.

Arthroscopic-Assisted Lower Trapezius Tendon Transfer for Massive Irreparable Posterosuperior Rotator Cuff Tears Using an Achilles Tendon-Bone Allograft

The lower trapezius tendon (LTT) transfer has been described for the management of irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears. Here we describe our technique of an arthroscopic-assisted LTT transfer using an Achilles tendon-bone allograft. This technique allows for augmentation of the tendon transfer using an Achilles tendon allograft while also keeping the calcaneal bone insertion, which allows for added bony fixation into the humerus and also minimizing the risk of the "killer turn" phenomenon at the aperture of fixation.

Preoperative Fatty Infiltration of the Teres Minor Negatively Affects Postoperative Outcomes in Patients With Rotator Cuff Pathology

Background

The teres minor is a critical component of the rotator cuff and serves as one of the few external rotators of the humerus. Information is lacking regarding the effect of teres minor atrophy in isolation and in the setting of concomitant full-thickness rotator cuff tears on outcomes in patients undergoing rotator cuff surgery.

Purpose

To investigate the effect of preoperative teres minor fatty infiltration on postoperative clinical outcomes in patients with and without full-thickness rotator cuff pathology.

Study Design

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods

A retrospective review of patients undergoing primary arthroscopic shoulder surgery between 2014 and 2016 was performed. Preoperative magnetic resonance imaging was used to determine fatty infiltration for each rotator cuff muscle using the modified Goutallier classification. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) as well as the shortened version of Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH) scores were obtained preoperatively and during follow-up. Exclusion criteria included prior surgery on the ipsilateral shoulder or a diagnosis of inflammatory arthropathy. For analysis, patients were dichotomized to grade 0 or grade 1-4 atrophy of the teres minor as well as to full-thickness or partial-thickness rotator cuff pathology.

Results

A total of 36 of 47 (76.6%) patients (mean age, 63 years; range, 45-76 years) were available for postoperative follow-up at a mean of 40 months (range, 30-48 months). Postoperative ASES score was significantly higher and QuickDASH score was significantly lower among all patients in the grade 0 group compared with the grade 1-4 group. Postoperative ASES and QuickDASH scores were not significantly different in patients with partial-thickness rotator cuff tears at any time point. However, the postoperative ASES score was significantly higher and QuickDASH score was significantly lower in the grade 0 versus grade 1-4 group for patients with full-thickness rotator cuff pathology.

Conclusion

Preoperative teres minor atrophy in patients undergoing surgery for rotator cuff pathology may impair postoperative clinical outcomes, especially in patients with full-thickness tears.

Surgical Management of Massive Irreparable Cuff Tears: Latissimus Dorsi Transfer for Posterosuperior Tears

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to describe the role of the latissimus dorsi transfer (LDT) for patients with irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears (RCTs).

RECENT FINDINGS

Historically, the LDT has been performed as an open (double-incision) procedure for neurologically intact, relatively young patients with irreparable posterosuperior RCTs with disabling loss of active external rotation with or without impaired active elevation. The transferred tendon reconstitutes the posterior rotator cuff and force couple, respectively and thus has the potential to function effectively as an external rotator and humeral head depressor. Long-term results of the open technique have demonstrated in the majority of patients substantial and durable improvements in shoulder function and pain relief at the 10-year benchmark. With the advancements of arthroscopic surgery, the LDT was expanded to an arthroscopically assisted procedure with promising short-term results. In addition to adequate technical performance, the success of the procedure depends on preoperative factors, such as exclusion of glenohumeral osteoarthritis and acromial acetabularization; intact or reparable subscapularis tendon; intact (or hypertrophic) teres minor muscle; adequate preoperative activity of the latissimus dorsi; and normal or mild impairment of overhead function. The LDT (open or arthroscopically assisted) is a reliable treatment option for patients with massive, irreparable posterosuperior RCTs with disabling loss of active external rotation, with or without diminished overhead function and without advanced glenohumeral osteoarthritis. Precise patient selection is of tremendous importance in the success of the LDT.

Clinical outcomes and ultrasonographic viability of GraftJacket® augmented rotator cuff repair: a prospective follow-up study with mean follow-up of forty-one months

BACKGROUND

The management of large rotator cuff tears in patients without evidence of glenohumeral arthritis is challenging and controversial. We wished to investigate the viability of Graft Jacket® augmentation and assess the clinical and radiological outcomes in a prospective study with a select cohort of patients.

METHODS

All procedures were performed by a single shoulder surgeon over a three-year period. Inclusion criteria were patients with large cuff tears (size 3-5 cm) not amenable to end-to-end repair. Patients with radiographic evidence of glenohumeral arthritis or cuff tear arthropathy were excluded. Open rotator cuff repair followed by bridging with GraftJacket® Regenerative Tissue Matrix was performed. Outcome was assessed with Constant scores (CS), QuickDash (QD) and Oxford Shoulder scores (OSS) at minimum twenty-two months and ultrasound assessment at nine months post-operatively.

RESULTS

Thirteen patients were identified who fit inclusion criteria (one bilateral). No patients were lost to follow up. At final follow-up thirteen shoulders had achieved function range of movement. Mean CS was 83 (range 70-100), mean Quick DASH was 5.4 (range 0-18.2), and mean OSS was 46 (range 41-48). Shoulder ultrasound revealed an intact Graft Jacket® in these patients.One patient had lower functional movement and worse CS (34), QD (34.1) and OSS (25) and ultrasound assessment identified a re-rupture.

DISCUSSION

This study indicates that augmentation of large rotator cuff repairs with a GraftJacket® scaffold is a viable option and has good functional results and sustained viability.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4.

Efficacy of Imaging Modalities Assessing Fatty Infiltration in Rotator Cuff Tears

BACKGROUND

Fatty atrophy is a diagnosis characterized by the combination of fatty infiltration and muscle atrophy of the rotator cuff. Studies have shown a strong positive correlation between the level of fatty infiltration and the risk of experiencing a chronic rotator cuff tear. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to review the current literature on radiographic imaging of fatty infiltration and fatty atrophy to better aid surgeons in predicting functional outcome and to help guide patient decisions.

METHODS

We conducted a literature search in PubMed. The exact search queries included "rotator cuff" in the MeSH Terms field; "fatty atrophy," fatty infiltration," and "fatty muscle degeneration" in the Title/Abstract field; and various combinations of these searches. We initially found 184 articles using these keywords, including both human and animal studies. The 25 animal studies were excluded, leaving 159 articles. The abstracts of all remaining articles were reviewed and selected on the basis of our inclusion criteria of focusing on patients with rotator cuff tears (preoperatively and postoperatively), fatty infiltration, fatty atrophy, and imaging modalities. We excluded an additional 127 articles, leaving 32 articles that were selected for the final review and inclusion in this study.

RESULTS

Among 45 shoulder specialists across different studies, interrater agreement for Goutallier staging with use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ranged from 0.24 to 0.82 and intrarater agreement for supraspinatus fatty changes ranged from 0.34 to 0.89. Our review also showed strong positive correlations when assessing the severity of fatty atrophy of the rotator cuff between MRI and ultrasound or ultrasound modalities such as sonoelastography.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing fatty infiltration of the rotator cuff is associated with greater repair failure rates and hence poorer overall clinical outcomes. MRI remains the gold standard for the imaging of rotator cuff tears and postoperative healing. Ultrasound can decrease health-care expenditures associated with the assessment of repair integrity postoperatively, although ultrasound is not as precise and has some limitations compared with MRI.

Low level of evidence for all treatment modalities for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears

PURPOSE

This systematic review assesses evidence for improvements in outcome for all reported types of treatment modalities [physical therapy, tenotomy or tenodesis of the long head of the biceps, debridement, partial repair, subacromial spacer, deltoid flap, muscle transfer, rotator cuff advancement, graft interposition, superior capsular reconstruction (SCR), and reversed shoulder arthroplasty (RSA)] used for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears without glenohumeral osteoarthritis. The primary aim was to be able to inform patients about expectations of the amount of clinical improvement after these treatments.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Cochrane databases for studies on irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff lesions without glenohumeral osteoarthritis, published from January 2007 until January 2019, with minimum 2-year follow-up. Studies with pre-operative and/or intra-operative determination of cuff tear irreparability were included. We defined the non-adjusted Constant Score as the primary outcome.

RESULTS

Sixty studies (2000 patients) were included with a fair mean quality score, according to the Modified Coleman Methodology Score. The employed definitions of 'irreparable' were mainly based on MRI criteria and were highly variable among studies. The smallest weighted mean preoperative to post-operative improvements in Constant Score were reported for biceps tenotomy/tenodesis (10.7 points) and physical therapy (13.0). These were followed by debridement (21.8) and muscle transfer (27.8), whereas the largest increases were reported for partial repair (32.0), subacromial spacer (32.5), rotator cuff advancement (33.2), RSA (34.4), graft reconstruction (35.0), deltoid flap (39.8), and SCR (47.4). Treatment using deltoid flap showed highest mean weighted improvement in Constant Score among studies with available medium-term (4-5-year) follow-up. Treatments deltoid flap, muscle transfer, and debridement were the only treatments with available long-term (8-10-year) follow-up and showed similar improvements in Constant Score at this time point.

CONCLUSION

The variability in patient characteristics, co-interventions, outcome reporting, and length of follow-up in studies on irreparable rotator cuff tears without osteoarthritis complicates sound comparison of treatments. Clinically important treatment effects were seen for all 11 different treatment modalities.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Latissimus dorsi transfer for massive posterosuperior rotator cuff tears: what affects the postoperative outcome?

BACKGROUND

The management of irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears (IPSRCTs) in young active individuals is still a challenge. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of sex, surgical technique, previous surgical procedures, tear genesis, and presence of a preoperative external rotation lag sign on the functional outcome after latissimus dorsi transfer (LDT) for IPSRCTs.

METHODS

Retrospectively, all patients with IPSRCTs treated with LDT during a 10-year period were followed up. Preoperative evaluation included the visual analog scale (VAS) score, range of motion, and the Constant score (CS). Postoperatively, the VAS score, range of motion, CS, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, and Subjective Shoulder Value were recorded. Preoperative and postoperative radiologic evaluation was performed using the Hamada-Fukuda classification and the acromiohumeral interval.

RESULTS

In total, 67 of 79 patients (85%), with a mean age of 63 years, were available for follow-up at 54 ± 28 months. The CS improved from 24 ± 6 points preoperatively to 68 ± 17 points at follow-up (P < .001). Active flexion increased from 83° ± 47° to 144° ± 35°; abduction, from 69° ± 33° to 134° ± 42°; and external rotation, from 24° ± 18° to 35° ± 21°. Postoperatively, the Subjective Shoulder Value was 69% ± 19% and the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score was 76 ± 21. The VAS score decreased from 6.3 ± 1.1 to 1.8 ± 2 (P < .001). Abduction strength increased from 0.4 ± 0.4 kg to 3.6 ± 2.2 kg (P < .001). The acromiohumeral interval decreased from 7.9 ± 2.6 mm to 5.1 ± 2.2 mm, and arthropathy worsened from Hamada-Fukuda stage 1.4 to stage 2.1. The rate of conversion to a reverse prosthesis was 6%.

CONCLUSION

LDT represents a reliable and reproducible treatment option with good clinical midterm results after surgical treatment. Sex, genesis, preoperative presence of an external rotation lag sign, and previous surgical procedures do not affect the overall clinical outcome.

Revision of a Failed Latissimus Dorsi Transfer for a Massive Rotator Cuff Tear With Arthroscopic Anatomic Bridging Reconstruction Using an Acellular Human Dermal Matrix Allograft

Latissimus dorsi tendon transfer is a nonanatomic tendon transfer that is often considered a salvage procedure for failed repairs of massive rotator cuff tears. A rupture of the transferred latissimus tendon is an uncommon complication and there is limited literature on its management, especially in the young, active population without cuff arthropathy. In this article, we present a technique of managing a failed latissimus dorsi tendon transfer for a massive rotator cuff tear with an arthroscopic, anatomic bridging reconstruction using an acellular human dermal matrix allograft.

Augmented latissimus dorsi transfer: initial results in patients with massive irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears

BACKGROUND

The surgical treatment of irreparable massive rotator cuff tears is challenging. The purpose of the present study was to report the initial outcomes after a modified latissimus dorsi transfer (LDT) augmented by acellular dermal allograft (ADA).

METHODS

This retrospective study includes 24 patients managed with LDT using ADA augmentation as a bursal-sided onlay between March 2009 and December 2015.

RESULTS

All patients were men with a mean age of 57 years (range 48 years to 70 years). Seven patients had a previously failed rotator cuff repair and ten patients presented with a deficient subscapularis tendon. At last follow-up (mean 27 months), there was a significant improvement in active forward flexion (mean increase 31°; p = 0.016), and abduction by 25° (p = 0.059). The acromiohumeral distance remained stable and the failure rate was low (4%). Neither a history of previous rotator cuff surgery, nor the presence of a subscapularis tear had a negative impact on functional outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In our cohort of patients, LDT augmented with ADA was a reasonable option for patients with previously failed rotator cuff repair, as well as in the subgroup of patients with a deficient subscapularis tendon.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV: Therapeutic study (case series).

The pattern of idiopathic isolated teres minor atrophy with regard to its two-bundle anatomy

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to analyze the pattern of teres minor atrophy with regard to its two-bundle anatomy and to assess its association with clinical factors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Shoulder MRIs performed between January and December 2016 were retrospectively reviewed. Images were evaluated for the presence and pattern of isolated teres minor atrophy. Isolated teres minor atrophy was categorized into complete or partial pattern, and partial pattern was further classified according to the portion of the muscle that was predominantly affected. The medical records were reviewed to identify clinical factors associated with teres minor atrophy.

RESULTS

Seventy-eight shoulders out of 1,264 (6.2%) showed isolated teres minor atrophy; complete pattern in 41.0%, and partial pattern in 59.0%. Most cases of partial pattern had predominant involvement of the medial-dorsal component (82.6%). There was no significant association between teres minor atrophy and previous trauma, shoulder instability, osteoarthritis, and previous operation. The history of shoulder instability was more frequently found in patients with isolated teres minor atrophy (6.4%), compared with the control group (2.6%), although the difference was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Isolated teres minor atrophy may be either complete or partial, and the partial pattern may involve either the medial-dorsal or the lateral-ventral component of the muscle. The imaging findings of partial pattern teres minor atrophy indicate that the two muscle components may have separate innervation.

Relation between Hypertrophy of Teres Minor Muscle and External Rotation Lag Sign in Patients with Rotator Cuff Pathology

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to determine the compensatory hypertrophy of the teres minor (TM) muscle in rotator cuff tears (RCTs) and also the relation between hypertrophy of TM muscle and external rotation lag sign (ERLS).

METHODS

In the period between June 2017 and April 2018, forty patients with RCTs of the shoulder joint came to our institution. We determined the ERLS of all the RCT patients along with the TM occupation ratio in the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan and correlated them together. The normal mean of TM occupational ratio was calculated from ten patients who have undergone MRI scan for other causes but with normal rotator cuff muscles.

RESULTS

In our study, the mean TM occupational ratio of 10 normal rotator cuff patients was 0.277. Of 40 rotator cuff pathology patients, the mean occupational ratio of the TM in RCTs is 0.359. Sixteen of the 40 patients had ER lag positive and the remaining 24 patients had ER lag negative. Those who were ER lag negative have an TM occupational ratio >0.401. A positive correlation was found between hypertrophy of TM and ERLS.

CONCLUSION

ERLS will be negative in patients with hypertrophy of TM in the setting of posterosuperior cuff tears. There is a strong correlation between cuff tears and hypertrophy of TM muscle, which helps in better prognosis and functional outcome of the patients treated with surgical intervention.

The presence of a rotator cuff tear interferes with age-dependent muscle atrophy of intact shoulder muscles. An MRI study with 3 years' follow-up

Rotator cuff muscle atrophy is frequently studied, but it is unknown whether redistribution of mechanical load in the presence of a rotator cuff tear influence muscle atrophy that is observed in patients. We hypothesized that in the presence of a supraspinatus tear, redistribution of mechanical load towards teres minor and deltoid slows down atrophy of these muscles over time. In this retrospective observational study of 129 patients, we measured the cross-sectional surface-areas on MRI of shoulder muscles in an intact rotator cuff (n = 92) and in a supraspinatus-tear group (n = 37) with a mean follow-up of 3 ± 1.8 years. Mixed models were applied to evaluate changes in surface-area of the rotator cuff and deltoid with adjustments for age, sex and follow-up time. In patients with an intact rotator cuff, the mean surface-area of the teres minor decreased 6 mm²/year (95% CI 0.7-11.1, P = 0.026) and the mean deltoid surface-area decreased 75 mm²/year (95% CI 24.5-124.8, P = 0.004). The presence of a rotator cuff tear was associated with less reduction of teres minor and deltoid surface-area in patients <50 years, with an effect of a tear of 22 mm²/year (95% CI 1.7-41.7, P = 0.034) and 250 mm²/year (95% CI 75.8-424.3, P = 0.006), respectively. Whereas the surface-area of teres minor and deltoid decrease over time in patient with an intact rotator cuff, the decline in surface-area of these muscles was substantially less in the presence of a rotator cuff tear. Our findings indicate that atrophy may be reduced if an increase in mechanical load is exerted onto the muscle.

Current concepts in the primary management of irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears without arthritis

Various procedures exist for patients with irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears (IRCT). At present, no single surgical option has demonstrated clinical superiority.There is no panacea for treatment and patients must be aware, in cases of palliative or non-prosthetic options, of an alarming rate of structural failure (around 50%) in the short term.The current review does not support the initial use of complex and expensive techniques in the management of posterosuperior IRCT.Further prospective and comparative studies with large cohort populations and long-term follow-up are necessary to establish effectiveness of expensive or complicated procedures such as superior capsular reconstruction (SCR), subacromial spacers or biological augmentation as reliable and useful alternative treatments for IRCT. Cite this article: EFORT Open Rev 2018;3 DOI: 10.1302/2058-5241.3.180002.

Novel Arthroscopic Tendon Transfers for Posterosuperior Rotator Cuff Tears: Latissimus Dorsi and Lower Trapezius Transfers

Background

Massive irreparable rotator cuff tears in both the primary and the revision setting are challenging problems. There remains controversy over the ideal treatment methods for these patients. In the case of an irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tear, tendon transfers^1-12 have emerged as a reliable option, with a durable outcome. The most commonly used tendon transfer options are the latissimus dorsi (LD)^1-6and the lower trapezius (LT)¹².

Description

The LD transfer is performed by first harvesting the LT tendon from the humeral shaft. It is critical to release the many adhesions to the muscle belly as well as to separate it from the teres major muscle. The tendon is then transferred intra-articularly, in an interval between the deltoid and the teres minor. The tendon is anchored arthroscopically after preparation of the anterolateral aspect of the tuberosity. The LT transfer is performed by harvesting the LT muscle and tendon off its insertion on the medial aspect of the scapular spine. It should be mobilized to maximize excursion by releasing adhesions. An Achilles tendon allograft is anchored into the anterior aspect of the greater tuberosity arthroscopically. The Achilles tendon is then secured to the LT tendon.

Alternatives

In addition to tendon transfer, options include:Partial or complete attempted repair^13-17.Augmentation or bridging with allografts^18-23.Superior capsular reconstruction²⁴.Subacromial balloon²⁵.

Rationale

There remains a paucity of literature comparing tendon transfers with alternatives. However, when considering a tendon transfer, certain principles are critical in order to achieve an optimal outcome:The recipient and transferred tendons must have similar musculotendinous excursion.The recipient and transferred tendons should have similar lines of pull.One tendon (the transferred) should be designed to replace 1 function (of the recipient).The function of the transferred tendon and muscle should be expendable without substantial donor site morbidity.The strength of the transferred muscle must be at least grade 4.When deciding between the LT and LD transfer, certain considerations should be taken into account. The LD transfer has a proven history of successfully treating massive irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears in studies with long-term follow-up^1-6. Alternatively, although the LT transfer has only recently gained popularity, it has the advantage of "in-phase" muscle function, since the trapezius naturally contracts during shoulder external rotation. Furthermore, its line of pull almost completely mimics the infraspinatus.

Restoration of External Rotation Following Reverse Shoulder Arthroplasty without Latissimus Dorsi Transfer

Background

Latissimus dorsi transfers have been considered necessary to restore active external rotation following reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA). The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of an RSA system that lateralizes the center of rotation in restoring active external rotation without a latissimus dorsi transfer in patients with a preoperative external rotation deficit (external rotation of <0°).

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the records of patients who had undergone RSA with a lateralized center of rotation without a latissimus dorsi transfer. All patients had had a preoperative external rotation deficit (active external rotation of <0°), and all were followed for a minimum of 2 years. Patients were stratified into 2 groups on the basis of the preoperative diagnosis: (1) those with a combined loss of active elevation and external rotation as a result of rotator cuff tear arthropathy (CLEER group) and (2) those with a combined loss of active elevation and external rotation as a result of other posttraumatic etiologies (non-CLEER group). The mean improvement of external rotation was analyzed. Subgroup analysis was performed on the basis of the Goutallier classification, glenosphere lateralization, and total prosthetic lateralization.

Results

Thirty-three patients (24 in the CLEER group and 9 in the non-CLEER group) met the inclusion criteria. The average follow-up was 43.4 months (range, 24 to 77 months). External rotation improved significantly in both the CLEER group (from -21° preoperatively to 28° postoperatively; p < 0.001) and the non-CLEER group (from -19° preoperatively to 26° postoperatively; p = 0.001). Goutallier classification, glenosphere lateralization, and total prosthetic lateralization were not correlated with the degree of improvement of external rotation in either group (p > 0.05 for all).

Conclusions

RSA with a lateralized center of rotation can effectively restore external rotation without the use of a latissimus dorsi transfer in patients with a preoperative external rotation deficit as a result of rotator cuff arthropathy or other posttraumatic etiologies.

Level of Evidence

Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Teres major tendon transfer in the treatment of irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears: long-term improvement of shoulder function and pain reduction at eight to 12 years’ follow-up

Aims

Since long-term outcome of teres major tendon transfer surgery for irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff (RC) tears is largely unknown, the primary aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term outcome of the teres major transfer. We also aimed to report on the results of a cohort of patients with a similar indication for surgery that underwent a latissimus dorsi tendon transfer.

Patients and Methods

Patients and Methods In this prospective cohort study, we reported on the long-term results of 20 consecutive patients with a teres major tendon transfer for irreparable massive posterosuperior RC tears. Additionally, we reported on the results of the latissimus dorsi tendon transfer (n = 19). The mean age was 60 years (47 to 77). Outcomes included the Constant score (CS), and pain at rest and during movement using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS).

Results

At a mean of ten years (8 to 12) following teres major transfer, the CS was still 23 points (95% confidence interval (CI) 14.6 to 30.9, p < 0.001) higher than preoperatively. VAS for pain at rest (21 mm, 95% CI 4.0 to 38.9, p = 0.016) and movement (31 mm, 95% CI 16.0 to 45.1, p < 0.001) were lower than preoperatively. We also found an increase in CS (32 points, 95% CI 23.4 to 40.2, p < 0.001) and reduction of pain (26 mm, 95% CI 9.9 to 41.8, p = 0.001) six years after latissimus dorsi transfer.

Conclusion

Teres major tendon transfer is a treatment option to gain shoulder function and reduce pain in patients with an irreparable posterosuperior RC tear at a mean follow-up of ten years. The teres major tendon might be a valuable alternative to the commonly performed latissimus dorsi tendon transfer in the treatment of irreparable posterosuperior RC tears. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:309-17.

Understanding the Importance of the Teres Minor for Shoulder Function: Functional Anatomy and Pathology

Although the teres minor is often overlooked in a normal shoulder, it becomes a key component in maintaining shoulder function when other rotator cuff tendons fail. The teres minor maintains a balanced glenohumeral joint and changes from an insignificant to the most significant external rotator in the presence of major rotator cuff pathology. The presence or absence of the teres minor provides prognostic information on the outcomes of reverse total shoulder arthroplasty and tendon transfers. Clinical tests include the Patte test, the Neer dropping sign, the external rotation lag sign, and the Hertel drop sign. Advanced imaging of the teres minor can be used for classification using the Walch system. Understanding the function and pathology surrounding the teres minor is paramount in comprehensive management of the patient with shoulder pathology. Appropriate clinical examination and imaging of the teres minor are important for preoperative stratification and postoperative expectations.

Isolated loss of active external rotation: a distinct entity and results of L'Episcopo tendon transfer

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to characterize a subgroup of cuff-deficient patients with isolated loss of active external rotation (ILER) but preserved active elevation and to evaluate the outcomes of the L'Episcopo procedure to restore horizontal muscle balance.

METHODS

During a 10-year period, 26 patients (14 men, 12 women) were identified with ILER in the setting of massive irreparable posterosuperior cuff tears. A modified L'Episcopo tendon transfer was performed to restore active external rotation and to improve shoulder function. The mean age at surgery was 64.5 years (29-83 years). Patients were evaluated with a mean follow-up of 52 months (range, 24-104 months).

RESULTS

Preoperatively, despite maintained active elevation (average of 161°), ILER patients complained about loss of spatial control of the arm and difficulties with activities of daily living. On computed tomography scan or magnetic resonance imaging, there was severe fatty infiltration of infraspinatus and absent or atrophic teres minor. After L'Episcopo transfer, 84% of patients were satisfied. The gain in active external rotation was +26° in arm at the side and +18.5° in 90° abduction. Adjusted Constant score and Simple Shoulder Value increased from 63.6% to 86.9% and from 36.9% to 70.8%, respectively (P < .001). The ADLER score increased from 10 to 24.5 points (P < .002). Two patients with advanced cuff tear arthropathy (Hamada stage 3 and 4) required conversion to a reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) 7 and 9 years after the index surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

ILER is a distinct entity that is a cause of severe handicap because of loss of spatial control of the upper limb. This symptom is related to absent or atrophied infraspinatus and teres minor. In properly selected cases (Hamada stage 1 or 2), the modified L'Episcopo transfer is effective at restoring anterior-posterior rotator cuff force balance. In more advanced cuff tear arthropathy (Hamada stage ≥3), the tendon transfer should be performed with an RSA because of possible secondary degeneration of the glenohumeral joint.

The Role of Tendon Transfers for Irreparable Rotator Cuff Tears

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to describe the tendon transfer options for treating irreparable rotator cuff tears (RCTs). Options for transfer include latissimus dorsi and lower trapezius transfers for posterior-superior RCTs and pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi transfer for anterior-superior RCTs.

RECENT FINDINGS

While the latissimus dorsi tendon transfer has historically been performed for posterosuperior RCTs, the lower trapezius transfer is a more anatomic option and has demonstrated promising results in recent studies. Similarly, the pectoralis major transfer has historically been the tendon transfer of choice for anterosuperior RCTs. However, the latissimus dorsi tendon transfer has recently been shown to be a safe and anatomic tendon transfer for subscapularis insufficiency. The treatment of irreparable RCTs involves complex decision making. Tendon transfer procedures can restore the glenohumeral joint force couples, allowing restoration of near-normal shoulder kinematics. Benefits include reliable pain relief, increased function, and increased strength. Proper selection of donor tendon is crucial, and the principles of tendon transfer procedures must be adhered to for maximal benefit.