Detection of Strawberry necrotic shock virus using conventional and TaqMan(®) quantitative RT-PCR

Effects of Thermal and Antibiotic Treatments on the Viral Accumulation of FcMV1 in Fusarium circinatum Isolates

Mycoviruses are viruses that infect fungi, including plant pathogens. The infection of these mycoviruses is sometimes associated with impaired phenotypes of their fungal hosts, a phenomenon known as hypovirulence. Thus, using mycoviruses as biological control agents has emerged as a promising tool to combat forest diseases. The invasive ascomycete fungus Fusarium circinatum, which causes pine pitch canker (PPC) disease in Pinus tree species and other coniferous trees, is infected by the mycovirus Fusarium circinatum mitovirus 1 (FcMV1), FcMV2-1, and FcMV2-2. However, its impact on pathogen fitness remains unclear. The most accurate method used to identify the effect of a mycovirus on its host is the generation of isogenic lines with and without the mycovirus. The present study aimed to cure F. circinatum isolates infected by FcMV1 using different approaches. For this purpose, three replicates of each isolate were exposed to thermal treatment (38 °C) and antibiotic treatment (ribavirin, cycloheximide, kanamycin, and rifampicin mixed with cAMP)(cyclic adenosine monophosphate) for five successive passages. The viral titer of FcMV1 was then assessed using qPCR (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) after the first week and after the fifth week of the treatment. The results revealed differences in treatment efficacy among F. circinatum isolates, with some showing very low virus titers at the end of the experiment. Both thermal and antibiotic treatment effectively reduced the viral load in all isolates. In addition, the antibiotic cycloheximide and rifampicin +cAMP reduced the viral titer more than ribavirin and kanamycin. The isolate Fc179 was found to be more prone to antibiotic treatment than the other two isolates (001 and Va221). This study demonstrated the possibility of using some isolates of F. circinatum for fine-tuning cures for mitovirus, in order to create virus-free strains for biological control in the future.

Development of Rapid and Affordable Virus-Mimicking Artificial Positive Controls

A major bottleneck in the development of detection assays is the availability of positive controls. Their acquisition can be problematic, their maintenance is expensive, and without them, assays cannot be validated. Herein, we present a novel strategy for the development of virus-mimicking artificial positive controls (ViMAPCs). The time between design and application is less than 5 days, unlike alternatives which normally take several weeks to obtain and implement. The ViMAPCs provide a realistic representation of natural infection unlike alternatives and allow for an effortless recognition of laboratory-based contamination. The feasibility and adaptability of the strategy was evaluated using several RNA and DNA plant viruses. ViMAPCs can be used in diagnostics laboratories but also in the monitoring of pathogen outbreaks where rapid response is of utmost importance.

Genomic analyses of a widespread blueberry virus in the United States

Screening of blueberry accessions using high throughput sequencing revealed the presence of a new virus. Genomic structure and sequence are similar to that of nectarine stem pitting associated virus (NSPaV), a member of the genus Luteovirus, family Tombusviridae. The full genome of the new luteovirus, tentatively named blueberry virus L (BlVL), was characterized and analyzed. Similar to NSPaV, BlVL does not contain readily identifiable movement proteins in any of the seven isolates sequenced. More than 600 samples collected from five states were screened and 79% were found infected, making BlVL the most widespread blueberry virus in the United States.

Genomic Analysis and Development of Infectious Clone of a Novel Carlavirus Infecting Blueberry

A new blueberry virus was discovered using high-throughput sequencing. Using sequence identity values, phylogenetics, and serological and biological properties, we propose the virus, putatively named blueberry virus S (BluVS), to be a distinct species within the genus Carlavirus (family Betaflexiviridae). The genome was analyzed in depth, and an infectious clone was developed to initiate studies on virus pathogenicity. Agroinfiltration of the binary vector construct produced severe systemic symptoms in Nicotiana occidentalis. Back-inoculation using sap from agroinfiltrated N. occidentalis produced identical symptoms to the recipient plants (N. occidentalis), and virus purification yielded flexuous carlavirus-like particles. However, unlike blueberry scorch virus (BlScV), BluVS caused symptomless infection in Chenopodium quinoa and reacted weakly to BlScV antibodies in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Collectively, the results provide evidence for the distinct speciation of BluVS. The availability of an infectious clone provides tools for future studies on the biology of the virus.

Comparison of High Throughput Sequencing to Standard Protocols for Virus Detection in Berry Crops

We completed a comprehensive study comparing virus detection between high throughput sequencing (HTS) and standard protocols in 30 berry selections (12 Fragaria, 10 Vaccinium, and eight Rubus) with known virus profiles. The study examined temporal detection of viruses at four sampling times encompassing two growing seasons. Within the standard protocols, reverse transcription (RT) PCR proved better than biological indexing. Detection of known viruses by HTS and RT-PCR nearly mirrored each other. HTS provided superior detection compared with RT-PCR on a wide spectrum of variants and discovery of novel viruses. More importantly, in most cases in which the two protocols showed parallel virus detection, 11 viruses in 16 selections were not consistently detected by both methods at all sampling points. Based on these data, we propose a testing requirement of four sampling times over two growing seasons for berry and potentially other crops, to ensure that no virus remains undetected independent of titer, distribution, or other virus-virus or virus-host interactions.

Population genetics of cycas necrotic stunt virus and the development of multiplex RT-PCR diagnostics

Cycas necrotic stunt virus (CNSV) has an extensive host range and is detected in an accelerated pace around the globe in several agricultural crops. One of the plant species affected is peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.). The virus is asymptomatic in most peony cultivars, but there have been reports of symptoms in others. It is thus important to study CNSV and its population structure to gain insights into its evolution and epidemiology. The outputs of this study, in addition to the in-depth analysis of the virus population structure, include the development of a multiplex RT-PCR detection protocol that can amplify all published CNSV isolate sequences; allowing for accurate, reliable detection of the virus and safeguarding its susceptible, clonally-propagated hosts.

Sequencing a Strawberry Germplasm Collection Reveals New Viral Genetic Diversity and the Basis for New RT-qPCR Assays

Viruses are considered of major importance in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duchesne) production given their negative impact on plant vigor and growth. Strawberry accessions from the National Clonal Germplasm Repository were screened for viruses using high throughput sequencing (HTS). Analyses of sequence information from 45 plants identified multiple variants of 14 known viruses, comprising strawberry mottle virus (SMoV), beet pseudo yellows virus (BPYV), strawberry pallidosis-associated virus (SPaV), tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV), strawberry mild yellow edge virus (SMYEV), strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV), strawberry crinkle virus (SCV), strawberry polerovirus 1 (SPV-1), apple mosaic virus (ApMV), strawberry chlorotic fleck virus (SCFaV), strawberry crinivirus 4 (SCrV-4), strawberry crinivirus 3 (SCrV-3), Fragaria chiloensis latent virus (FClLV) and Fragaria chiloensis cryptic virus (FCCV). Genetic diversity of sequenced virus isolates was investigated via sequence homology analysis, and partial-genome sequences were deposited into GenBank. To confirm the HTS results and expand the detection of strawberry viruses, new reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assays were designed for the above-listed viruses. Further in silico and in vitro validation of the new diagnostic assays indicated high efficiency and reliability. Thus, the occurrence of different viruses, including divergent variants, among the strawberries was verified. This is the first viral metagenomic survey in strawberry, additionally, this study describes the design and validation of multiple RT-qPCR assays for strawberry viruses, which represent important detection tools for clean plant programs.

Residual Effects Caused by a Past Mycovirus Infection in Fusarium circinatum

Mycoviruses are known to be difficult to cure in fungi but their spontaneous loss occurs commonly. The unexpected disappearance of mycoviruses can be explained by diverse reasons, from methodological procedures to biological events such as posttranscriptional silencing machinery. The long-term effects of a virus infection on the host organism have been well studied in the case of human viruses; however, the possible residual effect on a fungus after the degradation of a mycovirus is unknown. For that, this study analyses a possible residual effect on the transcriptome of the pathogenic fungus Fusarium circinatum after the loss of the mitovirus FcMV1. The mycovirus that previously infected the fungal isolate was not recovered after a 4-year storage period. Only 14 genes were determined as differentially expressed and were related to cell cycle regulation and amino acid metabolism. The results showed a slight acceleration in the metabolism of the host that had lost the mycovirus by the upregulation of the genes involved in essential functions for fungal development. The analysis also revealed a weak expression in the annotated genes of the RNA silencing machinery. To our knowledge, this is the first time that a potential residual effect on the host transcriptome caused by the past infection of a mycovirus is reported.

EFSA Panel on Plant Health (PLH), Bragard C, Dehnen‐Schmutz K, Gonthier P, Jacques M, Jaques Miret JA, Justesen AF, MacLeod A, Magnusson CS, Milonas P, Navas‐Cortes JA, Parnell S, Potting R, Reignault PL, Thulke H, Van der Werf W, Vicent Civera A, Yuen J, Zappalà L, Candresse T, Chatzivassiliou E, Finelli F, Winter S, Bosco D, Chiumenti M, Di Serio F, Ferilli F, Kaluski T, Minafra A, Rubino L. Pest categorisation of non-EU viruses of Rubus L

The Panel on Plant Health of EFSA conducted a pest categorisation of 17 viruses of Rubus L. that were previously classified as either non-EU or of undetermined standing in a previous opinion. These infectious agents belong to different genera and are heterogeneous in their biology. Blackberry virus X, blackberry virus Z and wineberry latent virus were not categorised because of lack of information while grapevine red blotch virus was excluded because it does not infect Rubus. All 17 viruses are efficiently transmitted by vegetative propagation, with plants for planting representing the major pathway for entry and spread. For some viruses, additional pathway(s) are Rubus seeds, pollen and/or vector(s). Most of the viruses categorised here infect only one or few plant genera, but some of them have a wide host range, thus extending the possible entry pathways. Cherry rasp leaf virus, raspberry latent virus, raspberry leaf curl virus, strawberry necrotic shock virus, tobacco ringspot virus and tomato ringspot virus meet all the criteria to qualify as potential Union quarantine pests (QPs). With the exception of impact in the EU territory, on which the Panel was unable to conclude, blackberry chlorotic ringspot virus, blackberry leaf mottle-associated virus, blackberry vein banding-associated virus, blackberry virus E, blackberry virus F, blackberry virus S, blackberry virus Y and blackberry yellow vein-associated virus satisfy all the other criteria to be considered as potential QPs. Black raspberry cryptic virus, blackberry calico virus and Rubus canadensis virus 1 do not meet the criterion of having a potential negative impact in the EU. For several viruses, the categorisation is associated with high uncertainties, mainly because of the absence of data on biology, distribution and impact. Since the opinion addresses non-EU viruses, they do not meet the criteria to qualify as potential Union regulated non-quarantine pests.

Genome sequence and detection of peach rosette mosaic virus

Peach rosette mosaic disease was first described in the 1940s affecting peach and plum. It was later determined that peach rosette mosaic virus (PRMV) is the causal agent of the disease. PRMV, a member of the genus Nepovirus, infects several perennial crops including stone fruit, grape and blueberry as well as several weed species found in orchards around the world. The molecular characterization of the virus is limited to partial genome sequences making it difficult to develop reliable and sensitive molecular detection tests; the reason that detection is routinely performed using ELISA with antibodies risen against a single virus isolate. Given the potential economic impact of the virus and the modes of transmission which, in addition to nematodes, include seed we studied PRMV in more depth using a modified dsRNA extraction protocol to obtain the virus genome. We determined the full nucleotide sequence and developed a protocol that detects conserved regions present in RNA 1 and RNA 2, making it an excellent alternative to the detection protocols used today.

Development of reliable detection assays for blueberry mosaic- and blackberry vein banding- associated viruses based on their population structures

Blueberry mosaic associated virus (BlMaV), the presumed causal agent of the homonymous disease and blackberry vein banding associated virus (BVBaV), a component of the blackberry yellow vein disease complex, are recently characterized RNA viruses. There is a need for efficient and sensitive detection protocols for the two viruses, not only for screening during the nursery propagation process but also in commercial fields to better understand virus epidemiology and minimize disease spread. RNA viruses display significant nucleotide variation forming quasi-species. Therefore, sequence-based detection methodologies, even though sensitive, may lead to false negative results. For this reason, information on the genetic diversity of virus populations is essential to develop diagnostic assays that have the potential to detect all variants. Detection assays for BlMaV and BVBaV were developed based on existing genetic diversity data and were validated by screening samples from different geographical areas in the United States. These detection tests provide sensitivity and specificity and will serve as the protocols of choice for virus screening in Vaccinium and Rubus certification programs in the United States and elsewhere. Given the increasing global trade of both blueberry and blackberry these tests will be valuable in avoiding virus introductions to new areas.