Sodium as the major mediator of NO-induced cell death in cultured hepatocytes

Glycine, a simple physiological compound protecting by yet puzzling mechanism(s) against ischaemia-reperfusion injury: current knowledge

Ischaemia is amongst the leading causes of death. Despite this importance, there are only a few therapeutic approaches to protect from ischaemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). In experimental studies, the amino acid glycine effectively protected from IRI. In the prevention of IRI by glycine in cells and isolated perfused or cold-stored organs (tissues), direct cytoprotection plays a crucial role, most likely by prevention of the formation of pathological plasma membrane pores. Under in vivo conditions, the mechanism of protection by glycine is less clear, partly due to the physiological presence of the amino acid. Here, inhibition of the inflammatory response in the injured tissue is considered to contribute decisively to the glycine-induced reduction of IRI. However, attenuation of IRI recently achieved in experimental animals by low-dose glycine treatment regimens suggests additional/other (unknown) protective mechanisms. Despite the convincing experimental evidence and the large therapeutic width of glycine, there are only a few clinical trials on the protection from IRI by glycine with ambivalent results. Thus, both the mechanism(s) behind the protection of glycine against IRI in vivo and its true clinical potential remain to be addressed in future experimental studies/clinical trials.

Hydrogen sulfide induced disruption of Na+ homeostasis in the cortex

Maintenance of ionic balance is essential for neuronal functioning. Hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S), a known toxic environmental gaseous pollutant, has been recently recognized as a gasotransmitter involved in numerous biological processes and is believed to play an important role in the neural activities under both physiological and pathological conditions. However, it is unclear if it plays any role in maintenance of ionic homeostasis in the brain under physiological/pathophysiological conditions. Here, we report by directly measuring Na(+) activity using Na(+) selective electrodes in mouse cortical slices that H(2)S donor sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) increased Na(+) influx in a concentration-dependent manner. This effect could be partially blocked by either Na(+) channel blocker or N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) blocker alone or almost completely abolished by coapplication of both blockers but not by non-NMDAR blocker. These data suggest that increased H(2)S in pathophysiological conditions, e.g., hypoxia/ischemia, potentially causes a disruption of ionic homeostasis by massive Na(+) influx through Na(+) channels and NMDARs, thus injuring neural functions. Activation of delta-opioid receptors (DOR), which reduces Na(+) currents/influx in normoxia, had no effect on H(2)S-induced Na(+) influx, suggesting that H(2)S-induced disruption of Na(+) homeostasis is resistant to DOR regulation and may play a major role in neuronal injury in pathophysiological conditions, e.g., hypoxia/ischemia.

High-content screening of drug-induced cardiotoxicity using quantitative single cell imaging cytometry on microfluidic device

Drug-induced cardiotoxicity or cytotoxicity followed by cell death in cardiac muscle is one of the major concerns in drug development. Herein, we report a high-content quantitative multicolor single cell imaging tool for automatic screening of drug-induced cardiotoxicity in an intact cell. A tunable multicolor imaging system coupled with a miniaturized sample platform was destined to elucidate drug-induced cardiotoxicity via simultaneous quantitative monitoring of intracellular sodium ion concentration, potassium ion channel permeability and apoptosis/necrosis in H9c2(2-1) cell line. Cells were treated with cisapride (a human ether-à-go-go-related gene (hERG) channel blocker), digoxin (Na(+)/K(+)-pump blocker), camptothecin (anticancer agent) and a newly synthesized anti-cancer drug candidate (SH-03). Decrease in potassium channel permeability in cisapride-treated cells indicated that it can also inhibit the trafficking of the hERG channel. Digoxin treatment resulted in an increase of intracellular [Na(+)]. However, it did not affect potassium channel permeability. Camptothecin and SH-03 did not show any cytotoxic effect at normal use (≤300 nM and 10 μM, respectively). This result clearly indicates the potential of SH-03 as a new anticancer drug candidate. The developed method was also used to correlate the cell death pathway with alterations in intracellular [Na(+)]. The developed protocol can directly depict and quantitate targeted cellular responses, subsequently enabling an automated, easy to operate tool that is applicable to drug-induced cytotoxicity monitoring with special reference to next generation drug discovery screening. This multicolor imaging based system has great potential as a complementary system to the conventional patch clamp technique and flow cytometric measurement for the screening of drug cardiotoxicity.

Ionic storm in hypoxic/ischemic stress: can opioid receptors subside it?

Neurons in the mammalian central nervous system are extremely vulnerable to oxygen deprivation and blood supply insufficiency. Indeed, hypoxic/ischemic stress triggers multiple pathophysiological changes in the brain, forming the basis of hypoxic/ischemic encephalopathy. One of the initial and crucial events induced by hypoxia/ischemia is the disruption of ionic homeostasis characterized by enhanced K(+) efflux and Na(+)-, Ca(2+)- and Cl(-)-influx, which causes neuronal injury or even death. Recent data from our laboratory and those of others have shown that activation of opioid receptors, particularly delta-opioid receptors (DOR), is neuroprotective against hypoxic/ischemic insult. This protective mechanism may be one of the key factors that determine neuronal survival under hypoxic/ischemic condition. An important aspect of the DOR-mediated neuroprotection is its action against hypoxic/ischemic disruption of ionic homeostasis. Specially, DOR signal inhibits Na(+) influx through the membrane and reduces the increase in intracellular Ca(2+), thus decreasing the excessive leakage of intracellular K(+). Such protection is dependent on a PKC-dependent and PKA-independent signaling pathway. Furthermore, our novel exploration shows that DOR attenuates hypoxic/ischemic disruption of ionic homeostasis through the inhibitory regulation of Na(+) channels. In this review, we will first update current information regarding the process and features of hypoxic/ischemic disruption of ionic homeostasis and then discuss the opioid-mediated regulation of ionic homeostasis, especially in hypoxic/ischemic condition, and the underlying mechanisms.

Cell shrinkage and monovalent cation fluxes: role in apoptosis

The loss of cell volume or cell shrinkage has been a morphological hallmark of the programmed cell death process known as apoptosis. This isotonic loss of cell volume has recently been term apoptotic volume decrease or AVD to distinguish it from inherent volume regulatory responses that occurs in cells under anisotonic conditions. Recent studies examining the intracellular signaling pathways that result in this unique cellular characteristic have determined that a fundamental movement of ions, particularly monovalent ions, underlie the AVD process and plays an important role on controlling the cell death process. An efflux of intracellular potassium was shown to be a critical aspect of the AVD process, as preventing this ion loss could protect cells from apoptosis. However, potassium plays a complex role as a loss of intracellular potassium has also been shown to be beneficial to the health of the cell. Additionally, the mechanisms that a cell employs to achieve this loss of intracellular potassium vary depending on the cell type and stimulus used to induce apoptosis, suggesting multiple ways exist to accomplish the same goal of AVD. Additionally, sodium and chloride have been shown to play a vital role during cell death in both the signaling and control of AVD in various apoptotic model systems. This review examines the relationship between this morphological change and intracellular monovalent ions during apoptosis.

Nitric oxide increases toxicity of hydrogen peroxide against rat liver endothelial cells and hepatocytes by inhibition of hydrogen peroxide degradation

Nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) show cooperativity in their cytotoxic action. The present study was performed to decipher the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. In cultured liver endothelial cells and in cultured, glutathione-depleted hepatocytes, the combined exposure to NO (released by spermine NONOate, 1 mM) and H(2)O(2) (released by glucose oxidase) induced cell injury that was far higher than the injury elicited by NO or H(2)O(2) alone. In both cell types, the addition of the NO donor increased H(2)O(2) steady-state levels, although with different kinetics: in hepatocytes, the increase in H(2)O(2) levels was already evident at early time points while in liver endothelial cells it became evident after > or =2 h of incubation. NO exposure inhibited H(2)O(2) degradation, assessed after addition of 50 microM, 200 microM, or 4 mM authentic H(2)O(2), significantly in both cell types. However, again, early and delayed inhibition was observed. The late inhibition of H(2)O(2) degradation in endothelial cells was paralleled by a decrease in glutathione peroxidase activity. Glutathione peroxidase inactivation was prevented by hypoxia or by ascorbate, suggesting inactivation by reactive nitrogen oxide species (NO(x)). Early inhibition of H(2)O(2) degradation by NO, in contrast, could be mimicked by the catalase inhibitor azide. Together, these results suggest that the cooperative effect of NO and H(2)O(2) is due to inhibition of H(2)O(2) degradation by NO, namely to inhibition of catalase by NO itself (predominant in hepatocytes) and/or to inhibition of glutathione peroxidase by NO(x) (prevailing in endothelial cells).