Depolymerization of Protobind lignin to produce monoaromatic compounds over Cu/ZSM-5 catalyst in supercritical ethanol

Lignin-coordinated niobium-based catalyst for the efficient conversion of industrial lignin in choline chloride-lactic acid integrated with ethanol deep eutectic solvent

Catalytic depolymerization is a favorable option for the valorization of industrial lignin. In this study, a new strategy was demonstrated for the efficient reductive depolymerization of industrial lignin based on a complex solvent of choline chloride-lactic acid (ChCl-LA) DES integrated with ethanol and a C-supported N-doped niobium-based catalyst with industrial lignin as carbon source (NBC@N-LC). It was found that the introduction of ethanol significantly improved the conversion of industrial lignin in ChCl-LA. More delightfully, depolymerization of industrial lignin in the complex solvent of DES-ethanol was further promoted by using the fabricated NBC@N-LC, exhibiting the best lignin dissolution performance, the lowest undepolymerized lignin yield of 21.9 % and the highest monomers yield of 31.8 %. 4-Ethylphenol was observed to dominate the monomers with 53.6 % selectivity, revealing the directional reactivity of the catalytic depolymerization process. Reaction pathway analysis showed that the synergistic effect of NBC@N-LC and DES-ethanol led to the efficient depolymerization of lignin, in which DES acted as an excellent solvent for lignin and depolymerized intermediates, ethanol acted as an in-situ hydrogen donor, and NBC@N-LC acted as a provider of reaction sites and acid active centers. In conclusion, this work offers a good alternative compared to the available lignin depolymerization method in terms of efficiency, selectivity, and cost aspects.

Heterogeneously Catalyzed Reductive Depolymerization of Lignin to Value-Added Chemicals

Lignin is an abundant renewable source of aromatics, but its complex heterogeneous structure poses challenges for its depolymerization and valorization. Heterogeneously catalyzed reductive depolymerization (HCRD) has emerged as a promising approach, utilizing heterogeneous catalysts to facilitate selective bond cleavage in lignin and hydrogen transfer to stabilize the products under mild conditions. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the hydrogen transfer mechanisms in HCRD, involving different hydrogen sources, including molecular hydrogen, alcohols, formic acid, etc., and the native hydrogen donor groups in lignin. The interaction between hydrogen sources and catalyst design is explored, emphasizing how catalyst characteristics must align with specific hydrogen transfer pathways to optimize efficiency and selectivity. Precious metal-based and non-precious metal-based catalysts are examined, highlighting advances that enhance hydrogen activation and transfer. Comparative analyses of hydrogen sources reveal distinct advantages and limitations. The significance of HCRD in lignin valorization and the development of integrated biorefineries is underscored, emphasizing its potential to contribute to a sustainable bioeconomy through improved process integration and economic viability.

Application of perovskite type oxide La x Ce1-x coo3 in lignin depolymerization and mono-phenol preparation

This study successfully prepared La x Ce1-x CoO3 (x = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1) series perovskite oxide catalysts by co precipitation, and found that La0.6Ce0.4CoO3 can significantly improve the yield of bio-oil under specific conditions (lignin to catalyst mass ratio of 1 : 2, reaction temperature of 240 °C, time of 10 hours, using methanol and ethanol as solvents). Furthermore, NH3-TPD, GC-MS, and FTIR analyses revealed the thermal decomposition behavior of key bonding structures such as β-O-4 and C-O-C during the catalytic process, while generating various mono-phenolic products such as guaiacol and 2,6-dimethylphenol. In addition, studies have shown that the physicochemical properties of perovskite type oxide catalysts have a significant impact on the chemical properties of lignin oil. By increasing the acidity of the catalyst, not only can the yield of lignin oil and phenols be improved, but also the yield of carbon can be reduced. More importantly, the catalyst performed well in the test of lignin catalyzed hydrogenation to produce monophenols, significantly improving the conversion rate of lignin and the yield of various monophenols compared to noncatalytic processes.

Catalytic hydrothermal liquefaction of alkali lignin for monophenols production over homologous biochar-supported copper catalysts in water

Constructing an advanced catalytic system for the purposeful liquefaction of lignin into chemicals has presented a significant prospect for sustainable development. In this work, the catalytic process of mesoporous homologous biochar (HBC) derived from alkali lignin supported copper catalysts (Cu/HBC) was reported for catalytic liquefaction of alkali lignin to monophenols. The characterization results revealed HBC promoted the formation of metal-support strong interaction and the generation of oxygen vacancies, enhancing the acid sites of Cu/HBC. Under the optimal conditions (0.2 g alkali lignin, 280 °C, 0.05 g Cu/HBC, 6 h, 18 mL water), the monophenol yield reached 75.01 ± 0.76 mg/g, and the bio-oil yield was 57.98 ± 1.76%. The copious mesopores, high surface area, and rich acidic sites were responsible for the high activity of Cu/HBC, which significantly outperformed the controlled catalysts, such as HBC, commercial activated carbon (AC), and reported Ni/AC, Ni/MCM-41, etc. In four consecutive runs, the catalytic performance of Cu/HBC was only reduced by 3.65% per cycle. Interestingly, catechol was selectively produced with Cu/HBC, which provided an effective strategy for the conversion of G/S-type lignin to catechyl phenolics (C-type). These findings indicate that the Cu/HBC will be a promising substitution of noble metal-supported catalysts for conversion biomass into high value-added phenolics.

Review on the preparation of fuels and chemicals based on lignin

Lignin is by far the most abundant natural renewable aromatic polymer in nature, and its reserves are second only to cellulose. In addition to the rich carbon content, the structure of lignin contains functional groups such as benzene rings, methoxyl groups, and phenolic hydroxyl groups. Lignin degradation has become one of the high value, high quality and high efficiency methods to convert lignin, which is of great significance to alleviating the current energy shortage and environmental crisis. This article introduces the hydrolysis methods of lignin in acidic, alkaline, ionic liquids and supercritical fluids, reviews the heating rate, the source of lignin species and the effects of heating rate on the pyrolysis of lignin, and briefly describes the metal catalysis, oxidation methods such as electrochemical degradation and photocatalytic oxidation, and degradation reduction methods using hydrogen and hydrogen supply reagents. The lignin degradation methods for the preparation of fuels and chemicals are systematically summarized. The advantages and disadvantages of different methods, the selectivity under different conditions and the degradation efficiency of different catalytic combination systems are compared. In this paper, a new approach to improve the degradation efficiency is envisioned in order to contribute to the efficient utilization and high value conversion of lignin.

Catalytic hydrogenolysis of alkali lignin in supercritical ethanol over copper monometallic catalyst supported on a chromium-based metal-organic framework for the efficient production of aromatic monomers

The catalytic hydrogenolysis of lignin has been reported as an effective approach for lignin depolymerization owing to its high efficiency for aromatic monomer production. In this study, a series of copper monometallic catalysts over an MIL-101(Cr) support were synthesized and used for the catalytic hydrogenolysis of alkali lignin using supercritical ethanol. First, the optimal copper catalyst for lignin hydrogenolysis was selected. Subsequently, the reaction conditions for catalytic hydrogenolysis were systematically optimized to maximize the total monomer yield. The optimal conditions were determined to be 6 h of reaction time, 20 min of sonication pretreatment, 50% catalyst loading, and 5% lignin loading. Under these conditions, an aromatic monomer yield of 38.5% was obtained; this depolymerized lignin stream, which is mainly composed of G-type monomers, can serve as a promising aromatic feedstock and carbon source for further microbial upgrading and bioconversion to produce various value-added products.

Co-upgrading of ethanol-assisted depolymerized lignin: A new biological lignin valorization approach for the production of protocatechuic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoic acid

This study presents a promising biological co-upgrading of ethanol-assisted depolymerized lignin (EDL) into protocatechuic acid (PCA) and polyhydroxyalkanoic acid (PHA) without any separation process. A depolymerized alkali lignin containing various G-lignin-type monomers at a concentration of 77 mg/mL was used for co-upgrading. An engineered Pseudomonas putida KT2440 strain was constructed by knocking out the protocatechuate 3, 4-dioxygenase, expression of the formaldehyde utilization pathway, and the expression of aldehyde dehydrogenase to enhance the efficiency of the ethanol utilization pathway. The growth and production of value-added bioproducts have been promoted by the utilization of formaldehyde, resulted in 6.73 ± 0.26 mg/L of PCA with a 17.5% (w/w) yield of total lignin monomers, and 303.66 ± 26.75 mg/L of PHA with 21.26% (w/w) of dry cell weight from 0.5 mL EDL. Moreover, the ethanol solvent used for lignin depolymerization was also utilized along with depolymerized lignin for co-upgrading to value-added products.

Could preoxidation always promote the subsequent hydroconversion of lignin? Two counterexamples catalyzed by Cu/CuMgAlOx in supercritical ethanol

In this study, two counterexamples of lignin preoxidation-hydroconversion were reported. First, two lignin feedstocks were preoxidized with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) in acetonitrile with various dosages (15%, 30%, and 60%). Then, these preoxidized lignins (HELOs and MWLOs) were hydroconverted in supercritical ethanol catalyzed by Cu/CuMgAlO_x. Total yields from HELOs were all higher than those from HEL, indicating the good promotion of DDQ preoxidation on the subsequent hydroconversion of HELOs, especially with the DDQ dosage of 15%. Differently, the promotion effect of DDQ preoxidation on the hydroconversion of MWLOs depended on the DDQ dosage as well as the reaction time. Through the comparison of two counterexamples, this work bursted the myth that preoxidation can always promote the subsequent hydroconversion of lignin, revealed the influence of lignin property, preoxidation degree, and reaction conditions on the subsequent hydroconversion of preoxidized lignin, and presented the new insight into the preoxidation-hydroconversion strategy for lignin.

Kraft Lignin Ethanolysis over Zeolites with Different Acidity and Pore Structures for Aromatics Production

To utilize its rich aromatics, lignin, a high-volume waste and environmental hazard, was depolymerized in supercritical ethanol over various zeolites types with different acidity and pore structures. Targeting at high yield/selectivity of aromatics such as phenols, microporous Beta, Y, and ZSM-5 zeolites were first examined in lignin ethanolysis, followed by zeolites with similar micropore size but different acidity. Further comparisons were made between zeolites with fin-like and worm-like mesoporous structures and their microporous counterparts. Despite depolymerization complexity and diversified ethanolysis products, strong acidity was found effective to cleave both C–O–C and C–C linkages of lignin while mild acidity works mainly in ether bond breakdown. However, when diffusion of gigantic molecules is severe, pore size, particularly mesopores, becomes more decisive on phenol selectivity. These findings provide important guidelines on future selection and design of zeolites with appropriate acidity and pore structure to promote lignin ethanolysis or other hydrocarbon cracking processes.

Directional depolymerization of lignin into high added-value chemical with synergistic effect of binary solvents

This work exploits a one-pot method for directional depolymerizing organosolv lignin into high added-value phenolic monomers with synergistic reaction system consisted of methanol-dimethoxymethane binary solvents and acid catalyst. The influence of solvent composition and reaction parameters such as different catalyst, binary solvents ratio, time, and temperature on the conversion of lignin and yield of products were investigated carefully, the optimum yield of liquid products and phenolic monomers were achieved at 67.39% and 27.67% at 200 °C kept for 60 min with low amount of acid catalyst. The plausible mechanism on the depolymerization of lignin was proposed in view of product distributions. Moreover, the combination of co-solvents and acidic catalyst was also suitable for converting different types of lignin into phenolic monomers, and the recyclability of joint reaction system was satisfactory. These results can provide promising prospects on developing an effective method for achieving high added-value phenolic compounds from lignin.

Lignin Depolymerization: A Comparison of Methods to Analyze Monomers and Oligomers

Catalytic liquefaction of lignin is an attractive process to produce fuels and chemicals, but it forms a wide range of liquid products from monomers to oligomers. Oligomers represent an important fraction of the products and their analysis is complex. Therefore, rapid characterization methods are needed to screen liquefaction conditions based on the distribution in monomers and oligomers. For this purpose, UV spectroscopy is proposed as a fast and simple method to assess the composition of lignin-derived liquids. UV absorption and fluorescence were studied on various model compounds and liquefaction products. Liquefaction of Soda lignin was conducted in an autoclave, in ethanol and with Pt/C catalyst (H₂ , 250 °C, 110 bar). Liquids were sampled at isothermal conditions every 30 min for 4 h. UV fluorescence spectroscopy is related to GC-MS, gel-permeation chromatography (GPC), MALDI-TOF MS, and NMR characterizations. A depolymerization index is proposed from UV spectroscopy to rapidly assess the relative distribution of monomers and oligomers.

Hydrogenolysis of lignin-derived aryl ethers to monomers over a MOF-derived Ni/N–C catalyst

A highly efficient Ni/N–C catalyst was synthesized by facile pyrolysis of a Ni-MOF, and its catalytic hydrogenolysis performance towards C–O bonds in lignin was evaluated in detail using diphenyl ether (DPE) as a model compound.

Catalytic Transfer Hydrogenolysis Reactions for Lignin Valorization to Fuels and Chemicals

Lignocellulosic biomass is an abundant renewable source of chemicals and fuels. Lignin, one of biomass main structural components being widely available as by-product in the pulp and paper industry and in the process of second generation bioethanol, can provide phenolic and aromatic compounds that can be utilized for the manufacture of a wide variety of polymers, fuels, and other high added value products. The effective depolymerisation of lignin into its primary building blocks remains a challenge with regard to conversion degree and monomers selectivity and stability. This review article focuses on the state of the art in the liquid phase reductive depolymerisation of lignin under relatively mild conditions via catalytic hydrogenolysis/hydrogenation reactions, discussing the effect of lignin type/origin, hydrogen donor solvents, and related transfer hydrogenation or reforming pathways, catalysts, and reaction conditions.

Ethanol: A Promising Green Solvent for the Deconstruction of Lignocellulose

Growing energy demand, environmental impact, energy security issues, and rural economic development have encouraged the development of sustainable renewable fuels. Nonfood lignocellulosic biomass is a suitable source for sustainable energy because the biomass feedstocks are low cost, abundant, and carbon neutral. Recent thermochemical conversion studies are frequently directed at converting biomass into high-quality liquid fuel precursors or chemicals in a single step. Supercritical ethanol has been selected as a promising solvent medium to deconstruct lignocellulosic biomass because ethanol has extraordinary solubility towards lignocellulosic biomass and can be resourced from cellulosic ethanol facilities. This review provides a critical insight into both catalytic and noncatalytic strategies of lignocellulose deconstruction. In this context, the supercritical ethanol deconstruction pathways are thoroughly reviewed; GC-MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, and elemental analysis strategies towards liquid biomass deconstruction products are also critically presented. This review aims to provide readers a broad and accurate roadmap of novel biomass to biofuel conversion techniques.