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Rodrigues A, Massenet T, Dubois LM, Huet AC, Markey A, Wavreille J, Gengler N, Stefanuto PH, Focant JF. Development and validation of a classification model for boar taint detection in pork fat samples. Food Chem 2024; 443:138572. [PMID: 38295570 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
This study aims to characterize a complete volatile organic compound profile of pork neck fat for boar taint prediction. The objectives are to identify specific compounds related to boar taint and to develop a classification model. In addition to the well-known androstenone, skatole and indole, 10 other features were found to be discriminant according to untargeted volatolomic analyses were conducted on 129 samples using HS-SPME-GC×GC-TOFMS. To select the odor-positive samples among the 129 analyzed, the selection was made by combining human nose evaluations with the skatole and androstenone concentrations determined using UHPLC-MS/MS. A comparison of the data of the two populations was performed and a statistical model analysis was built on 70 samples out of the total of 129 samples fully positive or fully negative through these two orthogonal methods for tainted prediction. Then, the model was applied to the 59 remaining samples. Finally, 7 samples were classified as tainted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaïs Rodrigues
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Thibault Massenet
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Lena M Dubois
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | | | - Alice Markey
- TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - José Wavreille
- Animal Production Unit, Walloon Agricultural Research Centre, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Nicolas Gengler
- TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Pierre-Hugues Stefanuto
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
| | - Jean-François Focant
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group, MolSys Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
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2
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Siebenmorgen C, Mörlein J, Strack M, Tetens J, Mörlein D. Enhancing agro-biodiversity in chicken: a sensory comparison of broths from German local chicken breeds and their crossbreeds. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103683. [PMID: 38613916 PMCID: PMC11026827 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024] Open
Abstract
The poultry meat production landscape has undergone a reduction in chicken breeds, resulting in a reliance on a limited number of varieties. Motivated by the goal of promoting sustainable chicken production and enhancing agro-biodiversity, this study pioneers a comparison between local chicken breeds (LB) and their crossbreeds (CB) with modern hybrid lines. Serving as an initial exploration within a larger project, this research acts as a prelude to a comprehensive investigation, aiming to complement the human sensory assessment of product quality. Study I assessed chicken broths prepared from 3 German LBs Bielefelder (BIE), Altsteirer (ALT), and Ramelsloher (RAM) utilizing a factorial 3 × 2 × 2 design that incorporated variations in salt content (unsalted/salted) and cooking time (1 h/3 h). The sensory profiles of the LB broths were largely similar, except for BIE, which exhibited a higher skin odor intensity. Both, increased salt content and longer cooking time intensify sensory perception on most attributes. In study II, BIE was compared with 6 CBs, with variations in salt content and cooking time (6 × 2 × 2 + 1 × 2 factorial design). BIE demonstrated higher sensory intensities than the CBs. Those were comparable, with no clear advantages or disadvantages identified from a sensory standpoint. These findings support that crossbreeding with commercial lines is not associated with changes in the sensory profile. It thus represents a strategy for improving the economic viability of local chicken breeds in order to preserve their valuable agro-biodiversity. The provided protocol for evaluating chicken broth from LBs or their CBs aims to offer researchers a standardized foundation for sensory assessments in chicken broth studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Siebenmorgen
- Department of Animal Sciences, Quality of Animal Products, Kellnerweg 6 D- 37077 Göttingen, University of Goettingen, Germany
| | - Johanna Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Quality of Animal Products, Kellnerweg 6 D- 37077 Göttingen, University of Goettingen, Germany.
| | | | - Jens Tetens
- Department of Animal Sciences, Functional Breeding, University of Goettingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Quality of Animal Products, Kellnerweg 6 D- 37077 Göttingen, University of Goettingen, Germany
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3
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Mörlein D, Mörlein J, Gerlach C, Strack M, Kranz B, Brüggemann DA. An overlooked compound contributing to boar taint and consumer rejection of meat products: 2-Aminoacetophenone. Meat Sci 2024; 213:109497. [PMID: 38508078 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2024.109497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Mainly skatole and androstenone have so far been considered causative for boar taint. Using a mixed methods approach it is shown herein that 2-aminoacetophenone (AAP) affects human perception of pork, too. We explored the importance of AAP in four trials: (1) chemical analyses of 221 fat samples from boar carcasses revealed that AAP occurs, on average, in similar quantities as skatole while the levels of androstenone being four-fold. (2) ranking tests with mixtures of androstenone and/or skatole with AAP presented on smell strips to trained sensory assessors showed that AAP amplifies boar odour. In order to study AAP's importance in meat products, four experimental variants of Lyon type sausage were then produced: a control, a product with added skatole (0.075 μg/g fat tissue), with added AAP (0.075 μg/g fat tissue), and with addition of both compounds. (3) results of a consumer discrimination test panel (n = 71) showed that, when added to a sausage system, APP causes a sensory difference of similar size as skatole while the methodology chosen affects the effect size: tetrad tests proved to be more sensitive than duo trio difference tests, in the tetrad test a sensory difference expressed as d' (d-prime) of 1.0 was reached. (4) a hedonic consumer test (n = 121) finally revealed that APP decreased consumer liking of the APP-spiked sausage - even to a stronger extent than skatole. APP caused significant drops in smell, taste, mouth-feel, after-taste and overall liking in Lyoner. Overall the findings suggest that, in the context of pork meat, AAP is of similar olfactory importance as skatole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Johanna Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Bertolt Kranz
- Max Rubner-Institut für Ernährung und Lebensmittel, Institut für Sicherheit und Qualität bei Fleisch, Kulmbach, Germany
| | - Dagmar A Brüggemann
- Max Rubner-Institut für Ernährung und Lebensmittel, Institut für Sicherheit und Qualität bei Fleisch, Kulmbach, Germany
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Bhatt K, Dejong T, Dubois LM, Markey A, Gengler N, Wavreille J, Stefanuto PH, Focant JF. Lipid Serum Profiling of Boar-Tainted and Untainted Pigs Using GC×GC-TOFMS: An Exploratory Study. Metabolites 2022; 12:1111. [PMID: 36422251 PMCID: PMC9693814 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12111111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Mass spectrometry (MS)-based techniques, including liquid chromatography coupling, shotgun lipidomics, MS imaging, and ion mobility, are widely used to analyze lipids. However, with enhanced separation capacity and an optimized chemical derivatization approach, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) can be a powerful tool to investigate some groups of small lipids in the framework of lipidomics. This study describes the optimization of a dedicated two-stage derivatization and extraction process to analyze different saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in plasma by two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS) using a full factorial design. The optimized condition has a composite desirability of 0.9159. This optimized sample preparation and chromatographic condition were implemented to differentiate between positive (BT) and negative (UT) boar-tainted pigs based on fatty acid profiling in pig serum using GC×GC-TOFMS. A chemometric screening, including unsupervised (PCA, HCA) and supervised analysis (PLS-DA), as well as univariate analysis (volcano plot), was performed. The results suggested that the concentration of PUFA ω-6 and cholesterol derivatives were significantly increased in BT pigs, whereas SFA and PUFA ω-3 concentrations were increased in UT pigs. The metabolic pathway and quantitative enrichment analysis suggest the significant involvement of linolenic acid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinjal Bhatt
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Thibaut Dejong
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Lena M. Dubois
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Alice Markey
- TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Gengler
- TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - José Wavreille
- Animal Production Unit, Walloon Agricultural Research Centre, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Pierre-Hugues Stefanuto
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Jean-François Focant
- Organic and Biological Analytical Chemistry Group (OBiAChem), MolSys, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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5
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Evaluating machine learning techniques to define the factors related to boar taint. Livest Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2022.105045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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6
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Burgeon C, Font-i-Furnols M, Garrido MD, Linares MB, Brostaux Y, Sabeña G, Fauconnier ML, Panella-Riera N. Can sensory boar taint levels be explained by fatty acid composition and emitted volatile organic compounds in addition to androstenone and skatole content? Meat Sci 2022; 195:108985. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2022.108985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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7
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Screening of fungi from the phylum Basidiomycota for degradation of boar taint aroma compounds. Eur Food Res Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-022-04045-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
The so-called proportional odds assumption is popular in cumulative, ordinal regression. In practice, however, such an assumption is sometimes too restrictive. For instance, when modeling the perception of boar taint on an individual level, it turns out that, at least for some subjects, the effects of predictors (androstenone and skatole) vary between response categories. For more flexible modeling, we consider the use of a ‘smooth-effects-on-response penalty’ (SERP) as a connecting link between proportional and fully non-proportional odds models, assuming that parameters of the latter vary smoothly over response categories. The usefulness of SERP is further demonstrated through a simulation study. Besides flexible and accurate modeling, SERP also enables fitting of parameters in cases where the pure, unpenalized non-proportional odds model fails to converge.
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Burgeon C, Debliquy M, Lahem D, Rodriguez J, Ly A, Fauconnier ML. Past, present, and future trends in boar taint detection. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Heyrman E, Millet S, Tuyttens FAM, Ampe B, Janssens S, Buys N, Wauters J, Vanhaecke L, Aluwé M. On-farm prevalence of and potential risk factors for boar taint. Animal 2021; 15:100141. [PMID: 33573941 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2020.100141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Boar taint is an unpleasant taste and odor that can occur in entire male pigs and is caused by androstenone, skatole, and to a lesser extent indole accumulating in fat tissue. In the present observational study, we evaluated an extensive list of such potential risk factors which influence boar taint: social hierarchy and puberty attainment, housing, health, preslaughter conditions, season, feed, carcass composition, slaughter weight or age, and breed. Details on these factors were collected by interviews with the participating farmers, observations on each farm by trained observers and farmers, as well as slaughterhouse data. Twenty-two farms (in West- and East-Flanders, ranging from 160 to 600 sows, selected on suitability) raising entire male pigs were included in the study to evaluate the link between boar taint and potential risk factors related to the farm and slaughter batch (114 slaughter batches and 16 791 entire male pigs in total). Average olfactory boar taint prevalence was 1.8 ± 0.8%. Boar taint prevalence varied also within farms up to a maximum range between slaughter batches of 9.1% which suggests an effect of factors varying between slaughter batches such as season or other variables varying between slaughter batches. Less aggressive behavior at the end of fattening as well as lower skin lesion scores at fattening as well as at slaughter could be associated with less boar taint. The same might be said for sexual behavior, though less convincingly from this study. Measures that reduce aggression and stress have therefore have the potential to lower boar taint prevalence. The same might be said for sexual behavior, though less convincingly from this study. Furthermore, boar taint prevalence was generally higher in winter than in summer, which is relevant from a planning perspective for the slaughterhouses to seek alternative markets. Finally, increased CP gave significantly lower boar taint prevalences. This may to some extent be explained by the negative association between boar taint and lean meat percentage, as increased dietary CP levels promote the carcass lean meat percentages which can then be associated with lower boar taint levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Heyrman
- ILVO (Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium; KU Leuven, Livestock Genetics, Department of Biosystems, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - S Millet
- ILVO (Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - F A M Tuyttens
- ILVO (Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - B Ampe
- ILVO (Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - S Janssens
- KU Leuven, Livestock Genetics, Department of Biosystems, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - N Buys
- KU Leuven, Livestock Genetics, Department of Biosystems, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - J Wauters
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L Vanhaecke
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - M Aluwé
- ILVO (Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
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11
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Feasibility of on/at Line Methods to Determine Boar Taint and Boar Taint Compounds: An Overview. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101886. [PMID: 33076492 PMCID: PMC7602555 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Due to welfare issues, the physical castration of male pigs is decreasing, and the entire male pig production is increasing. Fattening entire male pigs requires control due to the possibility of accumulating off odour/flavour called boar taint, which is mainly due to two compounds - skatole and androstenone. If carcasses with boar taint reach the market, it can cause a negative consumer reaction which may have economic consequences for the whole meat chain. Thus, it is necessary to sort out carcasses at the slaughter line. Today, a sensory quality control (human nose method) is used in some slaughter plants for this purpose. Detection by physical or chemical methods is also envisaged. A colorimetric method to determine skatole has been used in Danish abattoirs for decades, but it is foreseen that it will soon be replaced by the laser diode thermal desorption ion source coupled with a mass spectrometry equipment that allows a fully automated classification based on skatole and androstenone levels at speed line, with a delay of less than 40 min. Other potential methods such as the electrochemical biosensors, rapid evaporative ionization mass spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, still need further development and validation for an application at abattoir level. Abstract Classification of carcasses at the slaughter line allows an optimisation of its processing and differentiated payment to producers. Boar taint is a quality characteristic that is evaluated in some slaughter plants. This odour and flavour is mostly present in entire males and perceived generally by sensitive consumers as unpleasant. In the present work, the methodologies currently used in slaughter plants for boar taint classification (colorimetric method and sensory quality control-human nose) and the methodologies that have the potential to be implemented on/at the slaughter line (mass spectrometry, Raman and biosensors) have been summarized. Their main characteristics are presented and an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) has been carried out. From this, we can conclude that, apart from human nose, the technology that arises as very promising and available on the market, and that will probably become a substitute for the colorimetric method, is the tandem between the laser diode thermal desorption ion source and the mass spectrometry (LDTD-MS/MS) with automation of the sampling and sample pre-treatment, because it is able to work at the slaughter line, is fast and robust, and measures both androstenone and skatole.
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12
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Developing and Understanding Olfactory Evaluation of Boar Taint. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10091684. [PMID: 32957708 PMCID: PMC7552758 DOI: 10.3390/ani10091684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Boar taint is an unpleasant smell and taste of fat of uncastrated male pigs. Growing welfare concerns are pushing towards a ban on the common practice of castrating male piglets as a means to prevent boar taint. This pushes the pork industry to apply alternative strategies to prevent the consumption of tainted of meat. Detecting boar taint is an important aspect of solving this problem, both as a control strategy in slaughterhouses and in boar taint research. This study provides a training protocol and scoring method as well as recommendations for evaluating boar taint. Abstract Trained expert panels are used routinely in boar taint research, with varying protocols for training of panelists and scoring methods. We describe a standardized process for training and scoring, to contribute to standardize the olfactory detection of boar taint. Three experiments are described in which we (1) evaluate the importance of training and the effect of the previous sample, (2) determine detection thresholds on strips and in fat for our panel, and (3) test priming panelists before boar taint evaluation. For the final evaluation of boar taint, we propose a consistent three-person evaluation scoring on a 0–4 scale using a final mean score of 0.5 as the cut-off for boar taint. This gave an optimal sensitivity of 0.81 and a specificity of 0.56 compared to chemical cut-offs. Even limited training proved useful, but priming assessors with strips did not improve the evaluation of fat samples. Detection thresholds were higher in fat compared to strips, except for indole. We recommend panelists to always smell a non-tainted control sample after a tainted one as a ‘reset’ mechanism, before continuing. For longitudinal studies, we additionally advise to set up an expert panel with a fixed number of assessors performing each evaluation in duplicate.
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Hemeryck LY, Wauters J, Dewulf L, Decloedt AI, Aluwé M, De Smet S, Fraeye I, Vanhaecke L. Valorisation of tainted boar meat in patties, frankfurter sausages and cooked ham by means of targeted dilution, cooking and smoking. Food Chem 2020; 330:126897. [PMID: 32569929 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Because of the need to abolish the castration of piglets without anaesthesia/analgesia, the pig industry is searching for a mode of action for the valorisation of meat with boar taint, an off-odour in entire male pigs. Carcasses with boar taint were selected by means of sensory and chemical analysis, after which patties with different levels of tainted boar meat were produced, as well as cooked ham and Frankfurter sausages using different smoke condensates and cooking temperatures. For these products orthonasal and retronasal boar taint odour were assessed by a trained expert panel. The results offer guidance regarding dilution of tainted meat (with <400 µg/kg androstenone if skatole is low or <200 µg/kg androstenone in concurrence with ≥37 µg/kg skatole) and the potential application of smoke condensates (e.g., Rudinsmoke C for sausages and Smokez LFBN for ham) as promising boar taint masking strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieselot Y Hemeryck
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jella Wauters
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Lore Dewulf
- Research Group for Technology and Quality of Animal Products, Department M(2)S, Member of Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), KU Leuven Ghent Technology Campus, Gebroeders De Smetstraat, 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anneleen I Decloedt
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Marijke Aluwé
- Animal Sciences Unit, Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Scheldeweg, 68, B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - Stefaan De Smet
- Laboratory for Animal Nutrition and Animal Product Quality, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links, 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ilse Fraeye
- Research Group for Technology and Quality of Animal Products, Department M(2)S, Member of Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), KU Leuven Ghent Technology Campus, Gebroeders De Smetstraat, 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan, 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biosciences, Queen's University, University Road, Belfast, Ireland.
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14
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Westmacott KL, Crew AP, Doran O, Hart JP. Novel, rapid, low-cost screen-printed (bio)sensors for the direct analysis of boar taint compounds androstenone and skatole in porcine adipose tissue: Comparison with a high-resolution gas chromatographic method. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 150:111837. [PMID: 31735622 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.111837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This is the first report on the fabrication, characterisation and application of an electrochemical (bio)sensor system for the simultaneous measurement of skatole and androstenone. A biosensor for androstenone was fabricated using a Meldola's Blue modified SPCE (MB-SPCE) by depositing NADH and the enzyme 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase onto the MB-SPCE surface; samples of adipose tissue were analysed using the biosensors in conjunction with chronoamperometry. Cyclic voltammetry was used to investigate the electrochemical behaviour of skatole at a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE vs. Ag/AgCl). An oxidation peak was observed around +0.55 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) and differential pulse voltammetry was applied for quantification of skatole in adipose tissue (in-situ). Quantitative analysis was achieved using calibration plots obtained from fortified meat samples. The concentrations obtained by the electrochemical and gas chromatographic (GC) methods demonstrated a good positive correlation. The (bio)sensor system completed both measurements within 60 s, as compared to several hours for GC, and at a considerably reduced cost and complexity. Consequently, the novel (bio)sensor system should have applications for analysis of carcasses on the abattoir processing line.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Westmacott
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - A P Crew
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - O Doran
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - J P Hart
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK.
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15
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Mörlein J, Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Schnäckel W, Mörlein D. Sustainable use of tainted boar meat: Blending is a strategy for processed products. Meat Sci 2019; 152:65-72. [PMID: 30826630 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2019.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While forming mixtures is a widely used approach for other raw materials in food industry, it has not yet been systematically analyzed for boar tainted meat. That is why we simultaneously studied four factors relevant for the production of emulsion-type sausages: percentage boar meat (skatole concentrations up to 0.3 μg/g, androstenone up to 3.8 μg/g in melted backfat), duration of traditional smoke and concentration levels of two spices. 16 variants of Frankfurters were produced in two independent studies and evaluated by in total 211 consumers. A linear mixed effects model revealed that increased levels of boar tainted meat significantly reduced consumer acceptance which could not be compensated by increased smoke or spice levels. We propose a non-inferiority test to identify the mixture which is similarly accepted as the reference made without boar tainted meat. Up to 33% tainted boar meat is proposed, assuming a liking drop of 0.5 on a 9 point liking scale as benchmark for an inferior product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
| | | | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Statistics and Data Science Group, Helmut Schmidt University, D-22043 Hamburg, Germany.
| | | | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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16
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Wauters J, Verplanken K, Vercruysse V, Ampe B, Aluwé M, Vanhaecke L. Sensory evaluation of boar meat products by trained experts. Food Chem 2017; 237:516-524. [PMID: 28764028 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.05.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Rearing entire male pigs, one of the alternatives for surgical castration, entails the possible occurrence of boar taint. This study aimed at the investigation of the acceptability of meat from entire male pigs in 8 different meat products (cutlets, bacon, blade loin, tenderloin, dry fermented sausage, cooked ham, dry-cured ham and minced meat) by trained assessors. Generally, the sensory evaluation of meat samples was affected the most in the androstenone (AEON) group, indicating that AEON is the most offensive boar taint compound for sensitive assessors. Differences between the meat products showed the highest potential for processing tainted meat in cold meat products, which was most likely due to the serving temperature on the one hand and production-related influences on the other. However, more insights regarding reducing and masking effects of production-related factors on boar taint are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jella Wauters
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Kaat Verplanken
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Vicky Vercruysse
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bart Ampe
- Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, Scheldeweg 68, B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - Marijke Aluwé
- Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, Scheldeweg 68, B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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17
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Trautmann J, Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Mörlein D. Noise and accustomation: A pilot study of trained assessors' olfactory performance. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174697. [PMID: 28380041 PMCID: PMC5381871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While recent studies suggest an influence of noise on olfactory performance, it is unclear as to what extent the influence varies between subjects who are accustomed to noise and those who are not. Two groups of panelists were selected: a University panel usually working under silent conditions and an abattoir panel usually working on the slaughter line with abattoir noise. Odor discrimination, odor identification, and odor detection thresholds were studied. Furthermore, a sensory quality control task using 40 boar samples was performed. All tests were accomplished both with and without extraneous noise recorded at an abattoir (70 dB) using headphones. Contrary to the researchers’ expectations, abattoir noise hardly affected the olfactory tests nor was the quality control task impaired. Abattoir noise did not influence the perceived intensity of boar taint and the classification results of the testers, regardless of whether they were accustomed to such noise or not. The results indicate that sensory quality control can be conducted in a manufacturing environment with constant noise without diminishing the assessors’ performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Trautmann
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Institute of Applied Stochastics and Operations Research, Clausthal, University of Technology, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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18
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Garrido MD, Egea M, Linares MB, Martínez B, Viera C, Rubio B, Borrisser-Pairó F. A procedure for sensory detection of androstenone in meat and meat products from entire male pigs: Development of a panel training. Meat Sci 2016; 122:60-67. [PMID: 27486958 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study represents a proposal for training sensory panels in androstenone (AND) perception in meat and meat products. The procedure consists of four main parts: (1) selection and training of a sensory panel (11 panelists) using standards with Vaseline oil media as carriers of AND and skatole (SKA); (2) developing a training method AND detection in meat; (3) dry cured meat product and (4) cooked meat product. All candidates were able to distinguish between AND, SKA and AND+SKA in Vaseline oil, order AND solutions with different concentrations and classify them in the three categories: low, medium and high. The panel was able to differentiate the meat in the three categories, but only the high level in meat products. Due to the individual features in AND perception, specific training for each type of product is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mª Dolores Garrido
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30071 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Macarena Egea
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30071 Murcia, Spain
| | - Mª Belén Linares
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30071 Murcia, Spain
| | - Beatriz Martínez
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Junta de Castilla y León, Guijuelo 37770, Spain
| | - Ceferina Viera
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Junta de Castilla y León, Guijuelo 37770, Spain
| | - Begoña Rubio
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Junta de Castilla y León, Guijuelo 37770, Spain
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19
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Aaslyng MD, Broge EHDL, Brockhoff PB, Christensen RHB. The effect of skatole and androstenone on consumer response towards fresh pork from m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum and m. semimembranosus. Meat Sci 2016; 116:174-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Liu X, Schmidt H, Mörlein D. Feasibility of boar taint classification using a portable Raman device. Meat Sci 2016; 116:133-9. [PMID: 26882212 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The feasibility of Raman spectroscopy for boar taint detection and classification was investigated using tainted and untainted backfat samples of 46 boars. For this exploratory study, backfat samples were selected according to their levels of androstenone and skatole as determined by gas chromatography and their sensory score by a trained panel. Raman spectra were collected with a portable device at freshly cut surfaces of frozen-thawed samples. Both inner and outer layers of subcutaneous fat were studied. Their varying level of unsaturation was reflected in the Raman spectra. Partial least squares regression discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was applied to the spectra together with various pre-processing methods. A model using only spectra obtained at the inner layer resulted in the highest classification accuracy for boar taint (81% of samples correctly classified). The discrimination is shown to reflect differences in the degree of fatty acid saturation between tainted and untainted boars. In conclusion, the findings suggest that with further development Raman spectroscopy may be used to classify boar taint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoye Liu
- Key laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China; Department of Animal Science, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Heinar Schmidt
- University of Bayreuth, Bioanalytical Science and Food Analysis - Research Center of Food Quality, D-95326 Kulmbach, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Science, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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21
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Borrisser-Pairó F, Panella-Riera N, Zammerini D, Olivares A, Garrido MD, Martínez B, Gil M, García-Regueiro JA, Oliver MA. Prevalence of boar taint in commercial pigs from Spanish farms. Meat Sci 2015; 111:177-82. [PMID: 26468980 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The presence of boar taint can affect the sensory quality of pork because the "off" odours and flavours can be detected by consumers. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of boar taint in pig carcasses from 30 Spanish farms located in different regions of the country. Hot carcass weight and subcutaneous fat thickness means were 79.4±8.19 kg and 18.4±5.09 mm, respectively. Subcutaneous fat samples were classified into different levels according to androstenone and skatole concentrations in adipose tissue measured using GC-MS and HPLC. Androstenone results were: 87.4% of the carcasses below 0.50 μg/g, 7.1% from 0.50 to 1.00 μg/g (medium level), and 5.5% ≥1.00 μg/g (high level). Skatole results were: 88.9% of the carcasses below 0.10 μg/g, 4.5% from 0.10 to 0.20 μg/g (medium level), and 6.6% ≥0.20 μg/g (high level). Given these results, a future online method to classify carcasses according to boar taint is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Borrisser-Pairó
- IRTA-Monells, Product Quality Program, Finca Camps i Armet, E-17121 Monells, Girona, Spain.
| | - N Panella-Riera
- IRTA-Monells, Product Quality Program, Finca Camps i Armet, E-17121 Monells, Girona, Spain
| | - D Zammerini
- IRTA-Monells, Product Quality Program, Finca Camps i Armet, E-17121 Monells, Girona, Spain
| | - A Olivares
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Veterinaria, Avda. Puerta de Hierro, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - M D Garrido
- Universidad de Murcia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - B Martínez
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Consejería de Agricultura y Ganadería, Junta de Castilla y León, 37770 Guijuelo, Salamanca, Spain
| | - M Gil
- IRTA-Monells, Product Quality Program, Finca Camps i Armet, E-17121 Monells, Girona, Spain
| | - J A García-Regueiro
- IRTA-Monells, Product Quality Program, Finca Camps i Armet, E-17121 Monells, Girona, Spain
| | - M A Oliver
- IRTA-Monells, Product Quality Program, Finca Camps i Armet, E-17121 Monells, Girona, Spain
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22
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Trautmann J, Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Mörlein D. Boar taint detection: A comparison of three sensory protocols. Meat Sci 2015; 111:92-100. [PMID: 26348414 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While recent studies state an important role of human sensory methods for daily routine control of so-called boar taint, the evaluation of different heating methods is still incomplete. This study investigated three common heating methods (microwave (MW), hot-water (HW), hot-iron (HI)) for boar fat evaluation. The comparison was carried out on 72 samples with a 10-person sensory panel. The heating method significantly affected the probability of a deviant rating. Compared to an assumed 'gold standard' (chemical analysis), the performance was best for HI when both sensitivity and specificity were considered. The results show the superiority of the panel result compared to individual assessors. However, the consistency of the individual sensory ratings was not significantly different between MW, HW, and HI. The three protocols showed only fair to moderate agreement. Concluding from the present results, the hot-iron method appears to be advantageous for boar taint evaluation as compared to microwave and hot-water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Trautmann
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biometrics & Bioinformatics Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany; isi GmbH & Co. KG, D-37124 Rosdorf, Göttingen, Germany.
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23
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Bee G, Chevillon P, Bonneau M. Entire male pig production in Europe. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1071/an15279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In Europe the proportion of male pigs that are left ‘entire’ has been high for many years in the British Isles and Iberian Peninsula, and has recently increased in The Netherlands and to a lesser extent in Germany and France. Various European Union partners agreed in 2010 on a road map to abandon piglet castration by 1 January 2018. Despite significant commercial in-confidence research on instrumental methods for detecting boar-tainted carcasses at slaughter plants, nothing is currently being adopted at an industrial scale. A few abattoirs sort out the most heavily tainted carcasses, using human nose methods. However, there are major concerns with their accuracy, which is currently not documented in any publicly available technical report. The importance of androstenone and skatole for boar taint is still debated but a recent study (CAMPIG; G Backus, H Snoek, MA Oliver, M Font i Furnols, M Aluwé, F Tuyttens, M Bonneau, P Chevillon, MD Aaslyng, D Moerlein, L Meier-Dinkel, J Trautmann, J-E Haugen, unpubl. data) has established preliminary equations relating consumer dissatisfaction to androstenone and skatole levels. These equations still need further consolidation to integrate the impact of very high and very low androstenone levels on consumer acceptability. Reducing the incidence of boar taint at a production level and at the same time overcoming possible greater aggressive behaviour of entire male pigs are also critical for abandoning castration. Genetic selection is the most efficient way to reduce androstenone, but the selection of boar-taint-free genetic lines without any adverse consequence on the reproductive and growth performance will take time. Skatole levels can be efficiently reduced via feeding specific feedstuffs and good control of the animals’ environment. Provided that the incidence of boar taint can be reduced to an acceptable level and the residual tainted carcasses can be sorted out at a reasonable price by mutually recognised methods, the abandonment of castration will result in high benefits, up to one-billion euros for both the pork industry, via a drastic reduction of production costs, and society at large, through improved animal welfare and reduced impact on the environment.
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Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Müller S, Wesoly R, Mörlein D. Evaluating the performance of sensory quality control: the case of boar taint. Meat Sci 2014; 100:73-84. [PMID: 25310880 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Detection of malodours referred to as 'boar taint' in entire male pigs is essential for quality control when refraining piglet castration. This study analysed the sensitivity and specificity of sensory evaluation by trained assessors (n=18) compared to chemical analysis of two marker compounds (androstenone, skatole) in backfat (n=794). Taking the measurement uncertainty into consideration, several cut-off thresholds for chemical analysis were exemplarily evaluated. Using the panel average score, sensitivity and specificity of sensory analysis ranged from 61 to 69% and 77 to 85%, respectively. Performance of individual assessors varied highly (sensitivity: 47 to 86%; specificity: 45 to 88%) and correlated to olfactory acuity to the compounds. According to receiver operating characteristic-curves, the average panel performed better than single assessors regardless of the sensory criterion shift. Agreement plots illustrate that high skatole levels are better detected than high androstenone levels (useful for assessor feedback). The agreement between sensory and chemical analyses was moderate. Assessors need to be selected carefully.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Quality Section, University of Goettingen, D-37075 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biometrics and Bioinformatics Section, University of Goettingen, D-37075 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Simone Müller
- Thuringian State Institute for Agriculture, Section Animal Production, Regional Office Bad Salzungen, D-36433 Bad Salzungen, Germany
| | - Raffael Wesoly
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Breeding, Behavioral Physiology of Farm Animals, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Quality Section, University of Goettingen, D-37075 Goettingen, Germany.
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