An assessment of the fatty acid composition of horse-meat available at the retail level in northern Spain

Chefs Saddle Up-Perceptions of Horse Meat as a Sustainable Gastronomic Alternative in France

This study investigates French chefs' perceptions and knowledge of horse meat as a sustainable alternative in gastronomy. The research addresses the dual challenges of reducing the environmental impact of traditional meat production and reviving horse meat consumption, which has declined significantly in France due to cultural shifts and accessibility issues. Using semi-structured interviews with 12 chefs, including trainers and practicing professionals, the study explores their attitudes, personal consumption patterns, and professional willingness to incorporate horse meat into menus. The findings reveal that horse meat is valued for its nutritional and organoleptic properties, as well as its lower environmental impact compared to ruminant meats such as beef. However, barriers such as cultural taboos, limited knowledge, and insufficient culinary traditions impede its adoption. The chefs are categorized into three profiles-connoisseur, pragmatic, and reluctant-based on their personal and professional attitudes toward horse meat. The study concludes that promoting horse meat in select restaurants through education, recipe development, and targeted communication could enhance its acceptability and sustainability credentials. This work highlights the potential of horse meat to diversify protein sources in line with environmental and societal goals while addressing the specific needs of the equine sector.

Nutritional Quality and Socio-Ecological Benefits of Mare Milk Produced under Grazing Management

This review discusses the scientific evidence that supports the nutritional value of mare milk and how its properties are essentially achieved when mares are managed under grazing conditions. Mare milk's similarity with the chemical composition of human milk makes this food and its derived products not only suitable for human consumption but also an interesting food regarding human health. The contribution of horse breeding under grazing management to other socio-ecological benefits generated by equine farms is also highlighted. Both the high added value of mare milk and the socio-ecological benefits derived from pasture-based systems could be explored to improve the performance of equine farms located in arid and semi-arid areas or in regions with moderately harsh environmental conditions as equids have a strong adaptation capacity.

New insights in improving sustainability in meat production: opportunities and challenges

Treating livestock as senseless production machines has led to rampant depletion of natural resources, enhanced greenhouse gas emissions, gross animal welfare violations, and other ethical issues. It has essentially instigated constant scrutiny of conventional meat production by various experts and scientists. Sustainably in the meat sector is a big challenge which requires a multifaced and holistic approach. Novel tools like digitalization of the farming system and livestock market, precision livestock farming, application of remote sensing and artificial intelligence to manage production and environmental impact/GHG emission, can help in attaining sustainability in this sector. Further, improving nutrient use efficiency and recycling in feed and animal production through integration with agroecology and industrial ecology, improving individual animal and herd health by ensuring proper biosecurity measures and selective breeding, and welfare by mitigating animal stress during production are also key elements in achieving sustainability in meat production. In addition, sustainability bears a direct relationship with various social dimensions of meat production efficiency such as non-market attributes, balance between demand and consumption, market and policy failures. The present review critically examines the various aspects that significantly impact the efficiency and sustainability of meat production.

A horse on your plate? A cluster analysis of French consumers hippophagy acceptance

Hippophagy is a practice that is far from being consensual, even among meat eaters. Horse meat consumption remains limited or is even strongly declining in some countries such as France. However, the nutritional, organoleptic and environmental benefits of this meat invite us to consider horse meat products as a valuable alternative source of protein. This research therefore aims to identify and characterize different profiles of consumers and non-consumers of horse meat in terms of personal values, attitudes, motivations and behaviors. Based on data from a quantitative survey among 482 French meat consumers, we distinguish 4 categories of individuals: "Enthusiast", "Distant", "Aversive" and "Potential". While "Distant" and "Aversive" show a low level of acceptability towards horse meat, "Enthusiast" and "Potential" reveal characteristics that are favorable to horse meat consumption. Targeted strategies to support the horse meat market are proposed and discussed in light of these results that also provide insight into the future for meat in general.

Determination of the fatty acid composition and fatty acids trans-isomers in the horse, stall horse, mutton, beef and pork meat

In this study, we have focussed on the fatty acid composition of the meat of various animals raised in the Republic of Kazakhstan. We have analyzed pasture horse meat, stall horse meat, lamb, beef, and pork meat. Samples from four carcass muscles (back, hip, rib, and neck) were tested. Comparative analysis of the content of trans isomers of fatty acids (TFA) was performed. The analysis of the obtained samples showed that the TFA content is significantly (p <0.05) different in different parts of the carcasses of all animals. Their highest content was observed in the mutton sample, which reached 79.56-82.04%. The beef was next after mutton (6.20-9.64%). Less than in mutton and beef, but more than in pork and TFAs were contained in stall horse meat (2.75-5.52%). Of the two types of horse meat, there was less TFA in horse meat of pasture content (1.85-3.46%). Compared to all studied samples, the lowest level of trans fatty acids was in pork (0.91-1.39%). In horse meat of both types, TFAs were present in trans-9-C16: 1. More types of TFA were found in the meat of other animals: in mutton (trans-9-C14: 1; trans-9-C16: 1; trans-9-C18: 1; trans-11 C18: 1; trans-9-trans- 12-C18: 2), in beef (trans-9-C16: 1; trans-9-C18: 1; trans-11-C18: 1; trans-9-trans-12-C18: 2), in pork (trans-9-C16: 1). In addition to TFA, an analysis was made of the ratio of omega-6 and omega-3 (ω-6: ω-3). Considering that the lower the ratio of ω-6: ω-3 in fat, the healthier it is for the human body, the most optimal among the studied samples in terms of the ratio of ω-6: ω-3 fatty acids was mutton (1.83-2.35) and horse meat of stall keeping (1.76-6.53). The most unfavourable ratios were in the pork samples (17.46-35.69). The ratio ω-6: ω-3 in other animals was within the following limits: beef (5.35-9.13), horse meat of pasture content (7.08-10.50).

A Risk and Hazard Analysis Model for the Production Process of a New Meat Product Blended With Germinated Green Buckwheat and Food Safety Awareness

This study was specifically designed for a small-scale meat processing enterprise “DARIYA” to set up a specific HACCP plan for the new product (patties) made from mixed horsemeat with vegetable components developed in the Department of Technology of Food Production and Biotechnology, Shakarim University of Semey. Critical control points (CCPs) were identified and applied in the HACCP plan. The different hazards were detected at each processing step, whereas each CCP in the HACCP plan was identified and accompanied with the appropriate significant hazard, critical limit, monitoring of the CCP, and corrective actions, confirming that the enterprise has fully employed the HACCP methodology and ISO 22000:2018. Our results indicate that during almost 1 year following the implementation of ISO 22000:2018, the coliform level of tested patties significantly dropped (p < 0.05) after 6 months of implementation (coliform count dropped from 4.4 MPN/g to 1.8 MPN/g). The rapid screening of the bacterial count, heavy metals, pesticide residue, and physical contamination levels also improved monitoring assertiveness, allowing them to deal with foreseeable issues linking to resources and guarantee product quality. Cesium-137 was recorded as 5.4 ± 2.9627 Bq/kg in horsemeat and 6.7 ± 2.7045 in poultry. The activity of cesium-137 did not exceed the MAC. This result discloses that prompt screening is the foremost and necessary step for small enterprises. According to this study, the “acceptance of raw materials” is the most important CCP, and their control, particularly in small-scale meat processing enterprises, can actually prevent many negative outcomes. The implementation of both standards improved food quality by declining the flaw rates for patties, and the number of flow inconsistencies needed for correction in the process also dropped significantly (p < 0.05), demonstrating that safety and quality points were improving. If the application of the HACCP plan were to continue over an extended period of time, the Food Safety Management System's (FSMS) benefits would be more substantial improvements to a greater number of items being monitored. The process of implementing HACCP principles and ISO 22000:2018 could be arduous but achievable enough to be used in small industries with significant outcomes.

Fatty Acid Composition and Volatile Profile of longissimus thoracis&nbsp;et&nbsp;lumborum Muscle from Burguete and Jaca Navarra Foals Fattened with Different Finishing Diets

The present study evaluated the effect of breed, Jaca Navarra (JN) vs. Burguete (BU), and finishing diet, conventional concentrate—diet 1 (D1) vs. silage and organic feed—diet 2 (D2), on the fatty acid composition and volatile profile of longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle from forty-six foals. For this, foals were reared under a semi-extensive system and slaughtered at about 21 months of age. The outcomes showed that breed and finishing regime had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the lipid and volatile profile of foal meat. In particular, JN foals reported higher polyunsaturated fatty acid contents and better nutritional indices in line with the health guidelines; whereas, BU and D1 groups generated higher amounts of total volatile compounds. However, it was the diet to occupy a central role in this study. Indeed, diet 2, due to its “ingredients” and composition, not only ameliorated the lipid profile of foal meat, but also reduced the generation of volatile compounds associated with lipid oxidation and minimized off-flavors. Thus, this diet could give an added value to the aromatic perception of meat and improve its sensorial acceptability.

Effect of Gender on Meat Quality from Adult Obsolescent Horses

Simple Summary

Horses have played an important role for humans through history, being used as a transport, draught power in the past, and they continue to be used for leisure activities, recreation, and other tasks, including horse milk and meat consumption. Different contradictory cultural meanings are associated with horse meat consumption, and horse meat is a taboo in some countries but remains popular in others. There are also efforts to promote horse meat consumption as a healthy and nutritious food. As only a small part of raised horses is destined for meat production, in Europe most of horses are usually not slaughtered but are put down in other ways and often destroyed. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the influence of gender, age, and carcass weight on the properties of meat from adult obsolescent horses. Age did not show any effect on meat properties, whereas gender appeared to affect intramuscular fat, cholesterol content, color parameters, fatty acid composition, and toughness. Despite the differences in meat quality parameters between the genders, horse meat from all groups demonstrated a good quality, favorable fatty acid composition, and lipid indices in relation to healthy nutrition.

Abstract

The objective of the study was to assess the influence of gender, age, and carcass weight on the properties of meat from adult horses slaughtered in Lithuania. M. pectoralis profundus of twenty-six obsolescent horses from 3 to 21 years of age were used in the experiment. Gender appeared to affect the horse meat properties. Stallions demonstrated (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively) lower content of dry matter and also considerably lower (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01) intramuscular fat content compared with mares and geldings and higher (p < 0.01) cholesterol content compared with mares. The meat of stallions showed the highest pH; however, a significant (p < 0.01) difference was obtained only in comparison with mares. Meat lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) of stallions were lower (p < 0.05) compared with geldings. Meat toughness of stallions was also lower (p < 0.01) than the meat of mares and geldings. The highest (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) proportion of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), higher (p < 0.05) and more favorable PUFA/SFA ratio, and also the highest (p < 0.05) but least favorable n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio, were detected in the muscles of stallions compared with mares and geldings. The differences in horse ages did not exhibit any effect on the properties of M. pectoralis profundus. Despite the age differences at the decline of horse life, the properties of the horse meat exhibited good quality and showed that horse meat is potentially highly beneficial to human health.

Fatty Acid Composition of Meat Animals as Flavor Precursors

This article provides an overview of fatty acids in meat, their variation among animal species, and the roles of fatty acids as flavor precursors. Animal fat mostly consists of triglycerides and phospholipids. Fats from ruminant (cattle, sheep, and goats) and monogastric (pigs and horses) animals have similar fatty acids with more saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids than polyunsaturated fatty acids. In monogastric animals, fatty acids in the muscle reflect the composition of diets, whereas ruminant fatty acids are more saturated because of biohydrogenation in the rumen. Lipid- derived flavor compounds are formed from the thermal oxidation of fatty acids during cooking, producing more desirable aromatic compounds than autoxidation. Monounsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid in meat produce various volatile compounds contributing to cooked meat aromas. Under most cooking conditions, lipid-derived flavor compounds are usually predominant. However, these compounds have greater thresholds than those derived from water-soluble compounds, such as the Maillard reaction products. The interactions between lipid oxidation products and Maillard compounds are more important for the development of meat flavor than originally thought. Moreover, fat-derived volatile compounds provide flavor notes indicative of species identification.

Effect of Dietary Grape Pomace on Fattening Rabbit Performance, Fatty Acid Composition, and Shelf Life of Meat

The use of agroindustry by-products in animal diets allows the use of residues that are not fit for human consumption. In this study, it was investigated whether fattening commercial rabbits during 30 days with a non-medicated feed, with 20% addition of grape pomace (GPD), affected production traits and the fatty acid composition, antioxidants properties, and the shelf life of the meat compared to a conventional strategy (CON). Furthermore, it was tested, by chromatographic analysis, whether this alternative diet allowed the transfer of phenolic compounds to the meat. Thirty-six weaned rabbits were allotted to the two treatments. In each treatment, 18 rabbits were fattened in three indoor cages, each housing three males and three female rabbits. No significant differences were found in live weights (p > 0.05), but the feed conversion rate and carcass weight and yield were found to be impaired in the GPD group (p ≤ 0.05). The GPD group had a higher intramuscular fat percentage (2.01 vs. 1.54), improved polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids ratio (0.75 vs. 0.66), and better atherogenicity (0.71 vs. 0.83) and thrombogenicity (1.14 vs. 1.24) indexes, while the n-6/n-3 ratio was higher (25.4 vs. 20.3). Total volatile basic nitrogen in meat was lower in the GPD group (p = 0.01), suggesting a delayed spoilage. However, no improvements in total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, reducing power, and lipid oxidation (p > 0.05) were found in the meat. Even though the GPD pellets offered to the animals had several grape-derived phenolic compounds, and higher antioxidant properties compared to the CON diet, none of the phenolic compounds detected in feeds were detected in the meat samples.

Muscle and Subcutaneous Fatty Acid Composition and the Evaluation of Ageing Time on Meat Quality Parameters of Hispano-Bretón Horse Breed

Simple Summary

Horse meat; even though is still not popular in most countries; its consumption is slowly increasing and has the potential to become an alternative future red meat. However; research is still insufficient and a deeper understanding of its nutritional and physicochemical characteristics would be beneficial for the horse meat industry. The capacity of horses to efficiently uptake polyunsaturated fatty acids into their tissues has been reported; but detailed knowledge about horse meat fatty acid composition is limited. The present work provides a comprehensive fatty acid composition analysis of subcutaneous and muscle tissues from semiextensively reared Hispano-Breton horses; results indicated that finishing on a high-grain diet limited muscle n-3 accumulation. In addition; the evolution of physicochemical quality parameters such as pH, instrumental color, texture and cook loss were thoroughly studied during vacuum ageing (0, 7, 14 and 21 days), and the conclusion was that an ageing period between 7 and 14 days would be recommended for an optimum horse meat quality. The reasons for this recommendation were that tenderness increased during the first two weeks and then stayed stable and that visual properties deteriorated after 14 days. Overall; these results will help to standardize post mortem practices to obtain a homogeneous final horse meat quality.

Abstract

A full-randomized block design was used for the study of the FA composition and meat quality parameters, considering ageing time as a split-plot factor. Chemical and fatty acid composition of steaks (longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle) from 15 month old semiextensively reared Hispano-Bretón horses were characterized (day 0), and the effect of vacuum ageing (0, 7, 14 and 21 days) on several meat quality parameters (pH, instrumental color and texture and cook loss) was determined. The average fat content of horse loin was 3.31%, and the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content, although higher than in ruminant meats, suggested that the finishing on a high-grain diet limited muscle n-3 accumulation. Results revealed that ageing affected all meat quality measurements; color started to turn brownish at 14 days of ageing, with a decrease in redness but not in yellowness. Tenderness improved during the first two weeks, and the Warner-Bratzler shear force scores showed that meat aged for 7 days could be considered as ‘intermediate tender’. Under the present study conditions, an ageing period between 7 and 14 days is recommended for an optimum horse meat quality.

Flexibility of equine bioenergetics and muscle plasticity in response to different types of training: An integrative approach, questioning existing paradigms

Equine bioenergetics have predominantly been studied focusing on glycogen and fatty acids. Combining omics with conventional techniques allows for an integrative approach to broadly explore and identify important biomolecules. Friesian horses were aquatrained (n = 5) or dry treadmill trained (n = 7) (8 weeks) and monitored for: evolution of muscle diameter in response to aquatraining and dry treadmill training, fiber type composition and fiber cross-sectional area of the M. pectoralis, M. vastus lateralis and M. semitendinosus and untargeted metabolomics of the M. pectoralis and M. vastus lateralis in response to dry treadmill training. Aquatraining was superior to dry treadmill training to increase muscle diameter in the hindquarters, with maximum effect after 4 weeks. After dry treadmill training, the M. pectoralis showed increased muscle diameter, more type I fibers, decreased fiber mean cross sectional area, and an upregulated oxidative metabolic profile: increased β-oxidation (key metabolites: decreased long chain fatty acids and increased long chain acylcarnitines), TCA activity (intermediates including succinyl-carnitine and 2-methylcitrate), amino acid metabolism (glutamine, aromatic amino acids, serine, urea cycle metabolites such as proline, arginine and ornithine) and xenobiotic metabolism (especially p-cresol glucuronide). The M. vastus lateralis expanded its fast twitch profile, with decreased muscle diameter, type I fibers and an upregulation of glycolytic and pentose phosphate pathway activity, and increased branched-chain and aromatic amino acid metabolism (cis-urocanate, carnosine, homocarnosine, tyrosine, tryptophan, p-cresol-glucuronide, serine, methionine, cysteine, proline and ornithine). Trained Friesians showed increased collagen and elastin turn-over. Results show that branched-chain amino acids, aromatic amino acids and microbiome-derived xenobiotics need further study in horses. They feed the TCA cycle at steps further downstream from acetyl CoA and most likely, they are oxidized in type IIA fibers, the predominant fiber type of the horse. These study results underline the importance of reviewing existing paradigms on equine bioenergetics.

The digestion of galactolipids and its ubiquitous function in Nature for the uptake of the essential α-linolenic acid

Galactolipids, mainly monogalactosyl diglycerides and digalactosyl diglycerides are the main lipids found in the membranes of plants, algae and photosynthetic microorganisms like microalgae and cyanobacteria. As such, they are the main lipids present at the surface of earth. They may represent up to 80% of the fatty acid stocks, including a large proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids mainly α-linolenic acid (ALA). Nevertheless, the interest in these lipids for nutrition and other applications remains overlooked, probably because they are dispersed in the biomass and are not as easy to extract as vegetable oils from oleaginous fruit and oil seeds. Another reason is that galactolipids only represent a small fraction of the acylglycerolipids present in modern human diet. In herbivores such as horses, fish and folivorous insects, galactolipids may however represent the main source of dietary fatty acids due to their dietary habits and digestion physiology. The development of galactolipase assays has led to the identification and characterization of the enzymes involved in the digestion of galactolipids in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as by microorganisms. Pancreatic lipase-related protein 2 (PLRP2) has been identified as an important factor of galactolipid digestion in humans, together with pancreatic carboxyl ester hydrolase (CEH). The levels of PLRP2 are particularly high in monogastric herbivores thus highlighting the peculiar role of PLRP2 in the digestion of plant lipids. Similarly, pancreatic lipase homologs are found to be expressed in the midgut of folivorous insects, in which a high galactolipase activity can be measured. In fish, however, CEH is the main galactolipase involved. This review discusses the origins and fatty acid composition of galactolipids and the physiological contribution of galactolipid digestion in various species. This overlooked aspect of lipid digestion ensures not only the intake of ALA from its main natural source, but also the main lipid source of energy for growth of some herbivorous species.

Fatty Acid Composition of Yakut Horse Tissues

We compared the composition and content of fatty acids (FAs) in the liver, muscles, and subcutaneous fat of Yakut horses inhabiting extreme environment in the Cryolithozone. Essential linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, supplied to horses with their food, were accumulated in different tissues. Linoleic acid was accumulated in the liver but alpha-linolenic acid was accumulated in muscle and subcutaneous fat. Such a distribution indicates different roles of these fatty acids in the metabolism of horses. Yakut horse meat is a valuable dietary product owing to its fatty acid composition and content.

Current intakes of trans-palmitoleic (trans-C16:1 n-7) and trans-vaccenic (trans-C18:1 n-7) acids in France are exclusively ensured by ruminant milk and ruminant meat: A market basket investigation

High circulating levels of trans-palmitoleic acid (TPA) are associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes in humans. Thus, the origin of circulating TPA matters. Direct intakes of TPA are ensured by dairy products, and perhaps by partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs). Indirect intakes of TPA rely on dietary trans-vaccenic acid (TVA), which occurs in ruminant-derived foods and PHOs. As it is usually assumed that PHOs are not used any longer, we analyzed here a wide range of foods currently available at retail in France. We report that TPA and TVA (1) do occur in ruminant milk and meat, dairy products and in foreign PHOs, (2) do occur in dairy fat-containing foods and (3) do not occur in dairy fat-free foods. Together, our findings demonstrate that ruminant fats are the only contributors to circulating levels of TPA in humans.

Fatty Acid Content and Composition of the Yakutian Horses and Their Main Food Source: Living in Extreme Winter Conditions

: For the first time, seasonal changes in the content of total lipids (TLs) and phospholipids (PLs) were studied in fodder plants growing in Central Yakutia-a perennial cereal, smooth brome (Bromopsis inermis L.), and an annual cereal, common oat (Avena sativa L.). Both species have concentrated TLs and PLs in autumn under cold hardening. In addition, a significant increase in the content of fatty acids (FAs) of B. inermis was observed during the autumn decrease in temperature. The Yakutian horses, which fed on cereals enriched with nutrients preserved by natural cold (green cryo-fodder), accumulated significant amounts of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, the total content of which in cereals was 75% of the total FA content. We found differences in the distribution of these two FAs in different tissues of the horses. Thus, liver was rich in 18:2n-6, while muscle and adipose tissues accumulated mainly 18:3n-3. Such a distribution may indicate different roles of these FAs in the metabolism of the horses. According to FA content, meat of the Yakutian horses is a valuable dietary product.

Lipid classes in adipose tissues and liver differ between Shetland ponies and Warmblood horses

Fatty acids, as key components of cellular membranes and complex lipids, may play a central role in endocrine signalling and the function of adipose tissue and liver. Thus, the lipid fatty acid composition may play a role in health status in the equine. This study aimed to investigate the fatty acid composition of different tissues and liver lipid classes by comparing Warmblood horses and Shetland ponies under defined conditions. We hypothesized that ponies show different lipid patterns than horses in adipose tissue, liver and plasma. Six Warmblood horses and six Shetland ponies were housed and fed under identical conditions. Tissue and blood sampling were performed following a standardized protocol. A one-step lipid extraction, methylation and trans-esterification method with subsequent gas chromatography was used to analyse the total lipid content and fatty acid profile of retroperitoneal, mesocolon and subcutaneous adipose tissue, liver and plasma. Fatty acids were grouped according to their degree of saturation and their conjugated double bond into the respective lipid classes. In the adipose tissues, saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and n-9 monounsaturated fatty acids (n-9 MUFAs) were most present in ponies and horses. N-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFAs), followed by SFAs, were most frequently found in liver tissue and plasma in all animals. Horses, in comparison to ponies, had significantly higher n-6 PUFA levels in all tissues and plasma. In liver tissue, horses had significantly lower hepatic iso-branched-chain fatty acids (iso-BCFAs) than ponies. The hepatic fatty acid composition of selected lipid classes was different between horses and ponies. In the polar PL fraction, horses had low n-9 MUFA and n-3 PUFA contents but higher n-6 PUFA contents than ponies. Furthermore, iso-BCFAs are absent in several hepatic lipid fractions of horses but not ponies. The differences in fatty acid lipid classes between horses and ponies provide key information on the species- and location-specific regulation of FA metabolism, thus affecting health status such as inflammatory responses.

Seasonal changes in the sperm fatty acid composition of Shetland pony stallions

Spermatozoa contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Cryopreservation damages sperm membranes and they become less functional after thawing. We analysed the lipid composition of spermatozoa from Shetland stallions (n = 15) collected monthly from January to June and hypothesized that sperm lipid patterns change with season. In addition, one ejaculate per month was submitted to cryopreservation. Content of saturated palmytic and stearic acid decreased from January to March (p < 0.001) while content of the PUFA docosapentaenoic (p < 0.001) and arachidonic acid (p < 0.05) and total PUFA (p < 0.001) increased. Docosapentaenoic acid was the predominant PUFA in stallion spermatozoa. In conclusion, the sperm fatty acid composition of Shetland pony stallions undergoes seasonal changes, and PUFA content increases from the non-breeding to the breeding season. Seasonal differences in sperm fatty acids might in part explain seasonal differences in the resistance of equine spermatozoa to cryopreservation and cooled-storage.

Technological aspects of horse meat products - A review

Horse meat and its products can be considered as a food with a high nutritional value. However, due to cases of economically motivated food adulteration by the intentional addition of horse meat beef products in recent years, horse meat has become a controversial issue. Consumer confidence in meat products and the meat industry has diminished, although consumers consider the differences between the food content and the label as the major issue rather than the safety and nutritional characteristics of horse meat. The elaboration of meat products from horse meat (e.g. "cecina", dry-cured loin, salami, bressaola and pâté) is also an interesting alternative to other traditional meat products such as dry-cured pork hams, pork sausages and liver pâtés. In this review, the technological aspects, safety and storage stability of meat products elaborated from horse meat will be addressed by highlighting the nutritional and sensory aspects of these meat products. We aim to improve the existing knowledge about horse meat in the view of recent scandals.

Assessment of frozen storage duration effect on quality characteristics of various horse muscles

Objective

The study aimed at assessing the effects of frozen storage duration on quality characteristics, lipid oxidation and sensory quality of various horse muscles.

Methods

Five representative muscles: longissimus dorsi (LD), gluteus medius (GM), semimembranosus (SM), biceps femoris (BF), and triceps brachii (TB) at 24 h post-mortem obtained from 28-mo-old Jeju female breed horses (n = 8) were used in the present investigation. The muscles were vacuum-packaged and frozen at −20°C for 120, 240, and 360 days. All the samples were analyzed for thawing and cooking losses, pH, Warner–Bratzler shear forces (WBSF), color traits, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and sensory traits. The muscle samples analyzed on day 0 of frozen storage (fresh, non-frozen) were used for comparison.

Results

Results revealed that thawing and cooking losses significantly (p<0.05) increased in all the muscles after 120 days and then remained unchanged up to 360 days of frozen storage. The TBARS and TVBN contents significantly increased as increasing frozen storage time up to 360 days (p<0.05). While, significant decreases in WBSF values were observed for all the muscles with increased frozen storage time (p<0.05). Frozen storage variously affected the color traits of the muscles for instance; the redness of LD, GM, and BF muscles showed a decreasing tendency during frozen storage while it was not changed in TB and SM muscles. Furthermore, the frozen storage did not produce detrimental effects on sensory quality as it did not cause flavor and juiciness defects whereas it partially improved the tenderness of all the muscles studied.

Conclusion

Based on the results obtained from our work, it is concluded that frozen storage could be applied to increase the long-term shelf life of horsemeat while still retaining its sensory quality.

Effect of slaughter age and feeding system on the neutral and polar lipid composition of horse meat

This study was undertaken to provide a thorough analysis of the neutral lipid (NL) and polar lipid (PL) fractions of horse meat that included the content and distribution of acyl and alkenyl moieties in foals under different rearing conditions. Two groups of crossbred horses were studied; the first group was selected from suckling foals produced under grazing conditions and slaughtered at 4 months of age (n=8), and the second group was selected from concentrate-finished foals and slaughtered at 12 months of age (n=7). There were significant differences related to the age and feeding practices of foals which affected the intramuscular (IM) fat content and the fatty acid (FA) composition of NL and PL fractions. Samples from suckling foals were leaner and provided the highest content of methylation products from the plasmalogenic lipids, and total and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). By contrast, the meat from concentrate-finished foals had a higher IM fat level resulting in a greater accumulation of 16:0 and total monounsaturated FAs in the NL fraction, whereas the muscle PL fraction retained a similar FA composition between both groups. Linolenic acid was preferentially deposited in the NL fraction, but linoleic acid and the long-chain n-3 and n-6 PUFAs were incorporated into the PL fraction where they served as cell membrane constituents and in eicosanoid formation.