Ultrahigh-efficient separation of Mg2+/Li+ using an in-situ reconstructed positively charged nanofiltration membrane under an electric field

Nanofiltration Membranes for Efficient Lithium Extraction from Salt-Lake Brine: A Critical Review

The global transition to clean energy technologies has escalated the demand for lithium (Li), a critical component in rechargeable Li-ion batteries, highlighting the urgent need for efficient and sustainable Li+ extraction methods. Nanofiltration (NF)-based separations have emerged as a promising solution, offering selective separation capabilities that could advance resource extraction and recovery. However, an NF-based lithium extraction process differs significantly from conventional water treatment, necessitating a paradigm shift in membrane materials design, performance evaluation metrics, and process optimization. In this review, we first explore the state-of-the-art strategies for NF membrane modifications. Machine learning was employed to identify key parameters influencing Li+ extraction efficiency, enabling the rational design of high-performance membranes. We then delve into the evolution of performance evaluation metrics, transitioning from the traditional permeance-selectivity trade-off to a more relevant focus on Li+ purity and recovery balance. A system-scale analysis considering specific energy consumption, flux distribution uniformity, and system-scale Li+ recovery and purity is presented. The review also examines process integration and synergistic combinations of NF with emerging technologies, such as capacitive deionization. Techno-economic and lifecycle assessments are also discussed to provide insights into the economic viability and environmental sustainability of NF-based Li+ extraction. Finally, we highlight future research directions to bridge the gap between fundamental research and practical applications, aiming to accelerate the development of sustainable and cost-effective Li+ extraction methods.

Lithium extraction from low-quality brines

In the quest for environmental sustainability, the rising demand for electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies has substantially increased the need for efficient lithium extraction methods. Traditional lithium production, relying on geographically concentrated hard-rock ores and salar brines, is associated with considerable energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, groundwater depletion and land disturbance, thereby posing notable environmental and supply chain challenges. On the other hand, low-quality brines-such as those found in sedimentary waters, geothermal fluids, oilfield-produced waters, seawater and some salar brines and salt lakes-hold large potential owing to their extensive reserves and widespread geographical distribution. However, extracting lithium from these sources presents technical challenges owing to low lithium concentrations and high magnesium-to-lithium ratios. This Review explores the latest advances and continuing challenges in lithium extraction from these demanding yet promising sources, covering a variety of methods, including precipitation, solvent extraction, sorption, membrane-based separation and electrochemical-based separation. Furthermore, we share perspectives on the future development of lithium extraction technologies, framed within the basic principles of separation processes. The aim is to encourage the development of innovative extraction methods capable of making use of the substantial potential of low-quality brines.

Polyester Nanofiltration Membranes for Efficient Cations Separation

Polyester nanofiltration membranes highlight beneficial chlorine resistance, but their loose structures and negative charge result in poor cations retention precluding advanced use in cations separation. This work designs a new monomer (TET) containing "hydroxyl-ammonium" entities that confer dense structures and positive charge to polyester nanofiltration membranes. The TET monomer undergoes efficient interfacial polymerization with the trimesoyl chloride (TMC) monomer, and the resultant TET-TMC membranes feature one of the lowest molecular weight cut-offs (389 Da) and the highest zeta potential (4 mv, pH: 7) among all polyester nanofiltration membranes. The MgCl2 rejection of the TET-TMC membrane is 95.5%, significantly higher than state-of-the-art polyester nanofiltration membranes (<50%). The Li+ /Mg2+ separation performance of TET-TMC membrane is on par with cutting-edge polyamide membranes, while additionally, the membrane is stable against NaClO though polyamide membranes readily degrade. Thus the TET-TMC is the first polyester nanofiltration membrane for efficient cations separation.

Electronanofiltration Membranes with a Bilayer Charged Structure Enable High Li+/Mg2+ Selectivity

Achieving separation of lithium and magnesium with similar radii is crucial for the current lithium extraction technology from salt lakes, which usually possess a high lithium-to-magnesium ratio. Herein, we proposed the facile sequential interfacial polymerization (SIP) approach to construct electronanofiltration membranes (ENFMs) with a bilayer charged structure consisting of a high positively charged surface and a negatively charged sublayer. The trimesoyl chloride (TMC) concentration was adjusted to enhance the -COOH content and negative charge of the polyamide sublayer to promote Li+ migration, and then the quaternized polyethylenimine was introduced to the membrane surface by the SIP process to increase the positive charge density on the surface of the ENFMs, which would block the migration of Mg2+ and enhance the Li+/Mg2+ selectivity of the ENFMs. The optimal quaternary-modified ENFMs achieved outstanding selectivity for Li+/Mg2+ (49.85) and high Li+ flux (4.10 × 10-8 mol cm-2 s-1) at a current density of 10 mA cm-2. Moreover, in simulated brines with low lithium concentration and high Mg2+/Li+ ratio, the optimal ENFMs also displayed elevated Li+/Mg2+ selectivity (>45), highlighting the substantial promise of the membranes for practical applications.

Comparison of the Mg2+-Li+ Separation of Different Nanofiltration Membranes

Nanofiltration application for the separation of Mg2+-Li+ from salt-lake brines was attempted in the present work. Four different nanofiltration membranes identified in the manuscript as DL, DK, NF-270, and NF-90 were used to treat salt brine with a magnesium to lithium ratio (MLR) of 61, additionally contaminated by the other ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, etc. The effect of the dilution factor, operating pressure, circulation rate, and feed pH were assessed to identify the optimal operating conditions for each membrane based on the retention efficiency of each ion. The results showed an insignificant effect of Ca2+ on the retention performance of Mg2+-Li+. Na+ and K+ had a smaller hydration radius and larger diffusion coefficient, which competed with Li+ and altered the separation of Mg2+-Li+. Under the optimal conditions (dilution factor: 40; operating pressure: 1.2 MPa; circulation flow rate: 500 L/h; pH: 7), the retention efficiency of lithium was as low as 5.17%, separation factor (SF) was as low as 0.074, and the MLR in the permeate reduced to 0.088.

Mechanism Understanding of Li-ion Separation Using A Perovskite-Based Membrane

Lithium ions play a crucial role in the energy storage industry. Finding suitable lithium-ion-conductive membranes is one of the important issues of energy storage studies. Hence, a perovskite-based membrane, Lithium Lanthanum Titanate (LLTO), was innovatively implemented in the presence and absence of solvents to precisely understand the mechanism of lithium ion separation. The ion-selective membrane's mechanism and the perovskite-based membrane's efficiency were investigated using Molecular Dynamic (MD) simulation. The results specified that the change in the ambient condition, pH, and temperature led to a shift in LLTO pore sizes. Based on the results, pH plays an undeniable role in facilitating lithium ion transmission through the membrane. It is noticeable that the hydrogen bond interaction between the ions and membrane led to an expanding pore size, from (1.07 Å) to (1.18-1.20 Å), successfully enriching lithium from seawater. However, this value in the absence of the solvent would have been 1.1 Å at 50 °C. It was found that increasing the temperature slightly impacted lithium extraction. The charge analysis exhibited that the trapping energies applied by the membrane to the first three ions (Li⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺) were more than the ions' hydration energies. Therefore, Li⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺ were fully dehydrated, whereas Mg²⁺ was partially dehydrated and could not pass through the membrane. Evaluating the membrane window diameter, and the combined effect of the three key parameters (barrier energy, hydration energy, and binding energy) illustrates that the required energy to transport Li ions through the membrane is higher than that for other monovalent cations.

Ion Separations Based on Spontaneously Arising Streaming Potentials in Rotating Isoporous Membranes

Highly selective ion separations are vital for producing pure salts, and membrane-based separations are promising alternatives to conventional ion-separation techniques. Our previous work demonstrated that simple pressure-driven flow through negatively charged isoporous membranes can separate Li⁺ and K⁺ with selectivities as high as 70 in dilute solutions. The separation mechanism relies on spontaneously arising streaming potentials that induce electromigration, which opposes advection and separates cations based on differences in their electrophoretic mobilities. Although the separation technique is simple, this work shows that high selectivities are possible only with careful consideration of experimental conditions including transmembrane pressure, solution ionic strength, the K⁺/Li⁺ ratio in the feed, and the extent of concentration polarization. Separations conducted with a rotating membrane show Li⁺/K⁺ selectivities as high as 150 with a 1000 rpm membrane rotation rate, but the selectivity decreases to 1.3 at 95 rpm. These results demonstrate the benefits and necessity of quantitative control of concentration polarization in highly selective separations. Increases in solution ionic strength or the K⁺/Li⁺ feed ratio can also decrease selectivities more than an order of magnitude.

A fundamental study on selective extraction of Li+ with dibenzo-14-crown-4 ether: Toward new technology development for lithium recovery from brines

The present study has proposed a selective Li⁺ extraction process using a novel extractant of dibenzo-14-crown-4 ether functionalized with an alkyl C16 chain (DB14C4-C16) synthesized based on the ion imprinting technology (IIT). Theoretical analysis of the possible complexes formed by DB14C4-C16 with Li⁺ and the competing ions of Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ was performed through density functional theory (DFT) modeling. The Gibbs free energy change of the complexes of metal ions with DB14C4-C16 and water molecules were calculated to be -125.81 and -166.01 kJ/mol for lithium, -55.73 and -117.77 kJ/mol for sodium, and -196.02 and -291.52 kJ/mol for magnesium, respectively. Furthermore, the solvent extraction experiments were carried out in both single Li⁺ and multi-ions containing solutions, and the results delivered a good selectivity of DB14C4-C16 towards Li⁺ over the competing ions, showing separation coefficients of 68.09 for Ca²⁺-Li⁺, 24.53 for K⁺-Li⁺, 16.32 for Na⁺-Li⁺, and 3.99 for Mg²⁺-Li⁺ under the optimal conditions. The experimental results are generally in agreement with the theoretical calculations.

High-Efficiency Separation of Mg2+/Sr2+ through a NF Membrane under Electric Field

The efficient separation of Sr²⁺/Mg²⁺ through nanofiltration (NF) technology is a great challenge because Sr²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions are congeners with the same valence and chemical properties. In this work, an NF membrane under an electric field (EF) was successfully employed to separate Mg²⁺ and Sr²⁺ ions for the first time. The effects of current densities, Mg²⁺/Sr²⁺ mass ratios, pH of the feed, and coexisting cations on separation performance were investigated. Dehydration of Sr²⁺ or Mg²⁺ ions under EF was proved by molecular dynamics simulation. The results showed that a high-efficient separation of Mg²⁺/Sr²⁺ was achieved: Mg²⁺ removal of above 99% and increase in Sr²⁺ permeation with increasing EF. A separation factor reached 928 under optimal conditions, far higher than that without EF. The efficient separation of Mg²⁺/Sr²⁺ ions was mainly due to rejection of most Mg²⁺ ions by NF membrane and in situ precipitation of partly permeated Mg²⁺ ions by OH⁻ generated on the cathode under EF. Meanwhile, preferential dehydration of Sr²⁺ ions under EF due to lower hydration energy of Sr²⁺ compared with Mg²⁺ resulted in an increase of permeation of Sr²⁺ ions. This work provided a new idea for separation of congener ions with similar valence and chemical properties.