The influence of pH on Staphylococcus saprophyticus iron metabolism and the production of siderophores

Structure, Function, and Biosynthesis of Siderophores Produced by Streptomyces Species

Since the natural supply of iron is low, microorganisms acquire iron by secreting siderophores. Streptomyces is known for its abundant secondary metabolites containing various types of siderophores, including hydroxamate, catecholate, and carboxylate. These siderophores are mainly synthesized through the nonribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS) and non-NRPS pathways and are regulated by ferric uptake regulator and diphtheria toxin regulators. Although both NRPS and non-NRPS pathways adenylate substrates, they differ significantly in the catalytic logic. Siderophores produced by Streptomyces play important roles in fields of agriculture, medicine, and environment. However, their structure, function, and synthetic mechanisms have been inadequately summarized. Therefore, this Review aimed to provide an overview of the classification, structure, biosynthesis, regulation, and applications of siderophores produced by Streptomyces. Finally, the need for a comprehensive and well-defined mechanism for synthesizing siderophores from Streptomyces was highlighted to further promote their commercialization and application in agriculture, medicine, and other areas.

Skin-to-blood pH shift triggers metabolome and proteome global remodelling in Staphylococcus epidermidis

Staphylococcus epidermidis is one of the most common bacteria of the human skin microbiota. Despite its role as a commensal, S. epidermidis has emerged as an opportunistic pathogen, associated with 80% of medical devices related infections. Moreover, these bacteria are extremely difficult to treat due to their ability to form biofilms and accumulate resistance to almost all classes of antimicrobials. Thus new preventive and therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. However, the molecular mechanisms associated with S. epidermidis colonisation and disease are still poorly understood. A deeper understanding of the metabolic and cellular processes associated with response to environmental factors characteristic of SE ecological niches in health and disease might provide new clues on colonisation and disease processes. Here we studied the impact of pH conditions, mimicking the skin pH (5.5) and blood pH (7.4), in a S. epidermidis commensal strain by means of next-generation proteomics and 1H NMR-based metabolomics. Moreover, we evaluated the metabolic changes occurring during a sudden pH change, simulating the skin barrier break produced by a catheter. We found that exposure of S. epidermidis to skin pH induced oxidative phosphorylation and biosynthesis of peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acids and betaine. In contrast, at blood pH, the bacterial assimilation of monosaccharides and its oxidation by glycolysis and fermentation was promoted. Additionally, several proteins related to virulence and immune evasion, namely extracellular proteases and membrane iron transporters were more abundant at blood pH. In the situation of an abrupt skin-to-blood pH shift we observed the decrease in the osmolyte betaine and changes in the levels of several metabolites and proteins involved in cellular redoxl homeostasis. Our results suggest that at the skin pH S. epidermidis cells are metabolically more active and adhesion is promoted, while at blood pH, metabolism is tuned down and cells have a more virulent profile. pH increase during commensal-to-pathogen conversion appears to be a critical environmental signal to the remodelling of the S. epidermidis metabolism toward a more pathogenic state. Targeting S. epidermidis proteins induced by pH 7.4 and promoting the acidification of the medical device surface or surrounding environment might be new strategies to treat and prevent S. epidermidis infections.

The immune responses to different Uropathogens call individual interventions for bladder infection

Urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by uropathogens is the most common infectious disease and significantly affects all aspects of the quality of life of the patients. However, uropathogens are increasingly becoming antibiotic-resistant, which threatens the only effective treatment option available-antibiotic, resulting in higher medical costs, prolonged hospital stays, and increased mortality. Currently, people are turning their attention to the immune responses, hoping to find effective immunotherapeutic interventions which can be alternatives to the overuse of antibiotic drugs. Bladder infections are caused by the main nine uropathogens and the bladder executes different immune responses depending on the type of uropathogens. It is essential to understand the immune responses to diverse uropathogens in bladder infection for guiding the design and development of immunotherapeutic interventions. This review firstly sorts out and comparatively analyzes the immune responses to the main nine uropathogens in bladder infection, and summarizes their similarities and differences. Based on these immune responses, we innovatively propose that different microbial bladder infections should adopt corresponding immunomodulatory interventions, and the same immunomodulatory intervention can also be applied to diverse microbial infections if they share the same effective therapeutic targets.

Innate Bacteriostatic Mechanisms Defend the Urinary Tract

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common type of urogenital disease. UTI affects the urethra, bladder, ureter, and kidney. A total of 13.3% of women, 2.3% of men, and 3.4% of children in the United States will require treatment for UTI. Traditionally, bladder (cystitis) and kidney (pyelonephritis) infections are considered independently. However, both infections induce host defenses that are either shared or coordinated across the urinary tract. Here, we review the chemical and biophysical mechanisms of bacteriostasis, which limit the duration and severity of the illness. Urinary bacteria attempt to overcome each of these defenses, complicating description of the natural history of UTI.

Staphylococcus saprophyticus Proteomic Analyses Elucidate Differences in the Protein Repertories among Clinical Strains Related to Virulence and Persistence

Staphylococcus saprophyticus is a Gram-positive and coagulase negative cocci that composes the skin microbiota and can act as an opportunistic agent causing urinary tract infections, being more frequent in sexually active young women. The ability of a pathogen to cause infection in the host is associated to its ability to adhere to host cells and to survive host immune defenses. In this work, we presented the comparative proteomic profile of three S. saprophyticus strains. It was possible to characterize differences in the proteome content, specially related to expression of virulence factors. We compiled this data and previous data and we detected one strain (9325) possessing higher production and secretion of proteins related to virulence. Our results show that phenotypic, genotypic, and proteomic differences reflect in the ability to survive during interaction with host cells, since the 9325 strain presented a higher survival rate after macrophage interaction. In counterpart, the 7108 strain that possesses lower content of proteins related to virulence presented higher ability to form biofilm suggesting that this strain can be better adapted to persist in the host and in the environment. Our work describes, for the first time, proteomic flexibility among S. saprophyticus strains, reflecting in virulence and persistence.