Significance of TIM-3 expression by CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in tumor-draining lymph nodes from patients with breast cancer

Kv11.1-dependent senescence activates a lethal immune response via tumor necrosis factor alpha

Understanding the complex relationship between cancer and immune surveillance is essential for leveraging the immune system to control tumor growth. In our study, we discovered that activating the Kv11.1 potassium channel in ER+ breast cancer cells induces a senescent phenotype, which in turn triggers a potent immune response against these senescent cells. Specifically, we found that the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) plays a crucial role in activating CD4+ T-helper 1 (Th1) cells and memory T cell phenotypes. This activation led to the release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), which induced the death of senescent breast cancer cells, independent of their resistance to endocrine therapy. Our findings suggest that Kv11.1 channel-induced cellular senescence in ER+ breast cancer cells is a key mechanism in immune surveillance, driving a lethal immune response through TNFα. These results highlight the potential immunomodulatory role of Kv11.1 activation in ER-positive breast cancer and provide a foundation for future therapeutic investigations.

Reprogramming the breast tumor immune microenvironment: cold-to-hot transition for enhanced immunotherapy

This review discusses reprogramming the breast tumor immune microenvironment from an immunosuppressive cold state to an immunologically active hot state. A complex interplay is revealed, in which the accumulation of metabolic byproducts-such as lactate, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and ammonia-is shown to impair T-cell function and promote tumor immune escape. It is demonstrated that the tumor microenvironment (TME) is dominated by immunosuppressive cytokines, including interleukin-10 (IL-10), transforming growth factorβ (TGFβ), and IL-35. Notably, IL-35 is produced by regulatory T cells and breast cancer cells. The conversion of conventional T cells into IL-35-producing induced regulatory T cells, along with the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, contributes to the suppression of anti-tumor immunity. It is further demonstrated that key immune checkpoint molecules-such as PD-1, PDL1, CTLA-4, TIM-3, LAG-3, and TIGIT-are upregulated within the TME, leading to Tcell exhaustion and diminished immune responses. The blockade of these checkpoints is shown to restore T-cell functionality and is proposed as a strategy to convert cold tumors into hot ones with robust effector cell infiltration. The therapeutic potential of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)T cell therapy is also explored, and targeting specific tumor-associated antigens, such as glycoproteins and receptor tyrosine kinases, is highlighted. It is suggested that CART cell efficacy can be enhanced by combining these cells with immune checkpoint inhibitors and other immunomodulatory agents, thereby overcoming the barriers imposed by the immunosuppressive TME. Moreover, the role of the microbiome in regulating estrogen metabolism and systemic inflammation is reviewed. Alterations in the gut microbiota are shown to affect the TME, and microbiome-based interventions are proposed as an additional means to facilitate the cold-to-hot transition. It is concluded that by targeting the metabolic and immunological pathways that underpin immune suppression-through combination strategies involving checkpoint blockade, CART cell therapies, and microbiome modulation-the conversion of the breast TME from cold to hot can be achieved. This reprogramming is anticipated to enhance immune cell infiltration and function, thereby improving the overall efficacy of immunotherapies and leading to better clinical outcomes for breast cancer patients.

Increased pathogenicity and pro-inflammatory capabilities of mucosal-associated invariant T cells involved in Oral Lichen Planus

BACKGROUND

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells assume pivotal roles in numerous autoimmune inflammatory maladies. However, scant knowledge exists regarding their involvement in the pathological progression of oral lichen planus (OLP). The focus of our study was to explore whether MAIT cells were altered across distinct clinical types of OLP.

METHODS

The frequency, phenotype, and partial functions of MAIT cells were performed by flow cytometry, using peripheral blood from 18 adults with non-erosive OLP and 22 adults with erosive OLP compared with 15 healthy adults. We also studied the changes in MAIT cells in 15 OLP patients receiving and 10 not receiving corticosteroids. Surface proteins including CD4, CD8, CD69, CD103, CD38, HLA-DR, Tim-3, Programmed Death Molecule-1 (PD-1), and related factors released by MAIT cells such as Granzyme B (GzB), interferon (IFN)-γ, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-17A, and IL-22 were detected.

RESULTS

Within non-erosive OLP patients, MAIT cells manifested an activated phenotype, evident in an elevated frequency of CD69+ CD38+ MAIT cells (p < 0.01). Conversely, erosive OLP patients displayed an activation and depletion phenotype in MAIT cells, typified by elevated CD69 (p < 0.01), CD103 (p < 0.05), and PD-1 expression (p < 0.01). Additionally, MAIT cells exhibited heightened cytokine production, encompassing GzB, IFN-γ, and IL-17A in erosive OLP patients. Notably, the proportion of CD103+ MAIT cells (p < 0.05) and GzB secretion (p < 0.01) by MAIT cells diminished, while the proportion of CD8+ MAIT cells (p < 0.05) rose in OLP patients with corticosteroid therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

MAIT cells exhibit increased pathogenicity and pro-inflammatory capabilities in OLP. Corticosteroid therapy influences the expression of certain phenotypes and functions of MAIT cells in the peripheral blood of OLP patients.

Alteration of the immune microenvironment in the axillary metastatic lymph nodes of luminal A breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

The alteration of the immune microenvironment in the axillary metastatic lymph nodes of luminal A breast cancer patients is still unclear.

METHODS

Postsurgical tissues from the enrolled luminal A BCs were divided into five categories: primary BC lesion at stage N0 (PL1), primary BC lesion at stage N1 (PL2), negative axillary lymph node at stage N0 BC (LN1), negative axillary lymph node at stage N1 BC (LN2), and positive axillary lymph node at stage N1 BC (LN3). The frequencies of positive immune markers (CD4, CD8, PD1, PD-L1, T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM3), and forkhead box protein 3 (Foxp3)) in the above tissues were quantified by AKOYA Opal Polaris 7 Color Manual IHC Detection Kit.

RESULTS

A total of 50 female patients with luminal A BC were enrolled in this study. Among these patients, 23 had stage N1 disease, and 27 had stage N0 disease. Compared with that in the PL2 subgroup, the frequency of PD-1-positive cells was significantly greater in the PL1 subgroup, whether at the stromal or intratumoral level (P value < 0.05). Both the frequency of CD8 + T cells in LN1 and that in LN2 were significantly greater than that in LN3 (P value < 0.05). The frequency of TIM3 + T cells in LN1 was significantly greater than that in PL1 (P value < 0.05). The frequency of CD8 + TIM3 + T cells was significantly greater in both the LN2 and LN3 groups than in the PL2 group (P value < 0.05). The frequency of CD4 + Foxp3 + T cells was significantly greater in LN1 than in PL1 (P value < 0.05), which was the same for both LN3 and PL2 (P value < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Increased frequencies of CD8 + PD1+, CD8 + TIM3 + and CD4 + Foxp3 + T cells might inhibit the immune microenvironment of axillary metastatic lymph nodes in luminal A breast cancer patients and subsequently promote lymph node metastasis.

Dual Functions of T Lymphocytes in Breast Carcinoma: From Immune Protection to Orchestrating Tumor Progression and Metastasis

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer type in women and the second leading cause of death. Despite recent advances, the mortality rate of BC is still high, highlighting a need to develop new treatment strategies including the modulation of the immune system and immunotherapies. In this regard, understanding the complex function of the involved immune cells and their crosstalk with tumor cells is of great importance. T-cells are recognized as the most important cells in the tumor microenvironment and are divided into several subtypes including helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory T-cells according to their transcription factors, markers, and functions. This article attempts to provide a comprehensive review of the role of T-cell subsets in the prognosis and treatment of patients with BC, and crosstalk between tumor cells and T-cells. The literature overwhelmingly contains controversial findings mainly due to the plasticity of T-cell subsets within the inflammatory conditions and the use of different panels for their phenotyping. However, investigating the role of T-cells in BC immunity depends on a variety of factors including tumor types or subtypes, the stage of the disease, the localization of the cells in the tumor tissue and the presence of different cells or cytokines.

Non-invasive molecular imaging for precision diagnosis of metastatic lymph nodes: opportunities from preclinical to clinical applications

Lymph node metastasis is an indicator of the invasiveness and aggressiveness of cancer. It is a vital prognostic factor in clinical staging of the disease and therapeutic decision-making. Patients with positive metastatic lymph nodes are likely to develop recurrent disease, distant metastasis, and succumb to death in the coming few years. Lymph node dissection and histological analysis are needed to detect whether regional lymph nodes have been infiltrated by cancer cells and determine the likely outcome of treatment and the patient's chances of survival. However, these procedures are invasive, and tissue biopsies are prone to sampling error. In recent years, advanced molecular imaging with novel imaging probes has provided new technologies that are contributing to comprehensive management of cancer, including non-invasive investigation of lymphatic drainage from tumors, identifying metastatic lymph nodes, and guiding surgeons to operate efficiently in patients with complex lesions. In this review, first, we outline the current status of different molecular imaging modalities applied for lymph node metastasis management. Second, we summarize the multi-functional imaging probes applied with the different imaging modalities as well as applications of cancer lymph node metastasis from preclinical studies to clinical translations. Third, we describe the limitations that must be considered in the field of molecular imaging for improved detection of lymph node metastasis. Finally, we propose future directions for molecular imaging technology that will allow more personalized treatment plans for patients with lymph node metastasis.

Soluble TIM-3 as a biomarker of progression and therapeutic response in cancers and other of human diseases

Immune checkpoints inhibition is a privileged approach to combat cancers and other human diseases. The TIM-3 (T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3) inhibitory checkpoint expressed on different types of immune cells is actively investigated as an anticancer target, with a dozen of monoclonal antibodies in (pre)clinical development. A soluble form sTIM-3 can be found in the plasma of patients with cancer and other diseases. This active circulating protein originates from the proteolytic cleavage by two ADAM metalloproteases of the membrane receptor shared by tumor and non-tumor cells, and extracellular vesicles. In most cancers but not all, overexpression of mTIM-3 at the cell surface leads to high level of sTIM-3. Similarly, elevated levels of sTIM-3 have been reported in chronic autoimmune diseases, inflammatory gastro-intestinal diseases, certain viral and parasitic diseases, but also in cases of organ transplantation and in pregnancy-related pathologies. We have analyzed the origin of sTIM-3, its methods of dosage in blood or plasma, its presence in multiple diseases and its potential role as a biomarker to follow disease progression and/or the treatment response. In contrast to sPD-L1 generated by different classes of proteases and by alternative splicing, sTIM-3 is uniquely produced upon ADAM-dependent shedding, providing a more homogenous molecular entity and a possibly more reliable molecular marker. However, the biological functionality of sTIM-3 remains insufficiently characterized. The review shed light on pathologies associated with an altered expression of sTIM-3 in human plasma and the possibility to use sTIM-3 as a diagnostic or therapeutic marker.

The Emerging Role of T-Cell Immunoglobulin Mucin-3 in Breast Cancer: A Promising Target For Immunotherapy

Cancer treatment through immune checkpoint receptor blockade has made significant advances in the recent years. However, resistance to the current immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has been observed in many patients, who consequently do not respond to these treatments. T-cell immunoglobulin mucin-3 (Tim-3) is a novel immune checkpoint molecule emerging as a potential therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy. Epidemiologic findings reveal that genetic polymorphisms in the Tim-3 gene are associated with increased susceptibility to breast cancer. In patients with breast cancer, Tim-3 is expressed both on immune and tumor cells. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that Tim-3 can notably affect breast cancer treatment outcome and prognosis. Therefore, Tim-3 is being regarded as a high-potential target for improving breast cancer therapy. In this review, we summarize the role of Tim-3 in breast cancer and the regulation mechanisms of Tim-3 to furnish evidences for future research and therapy.

PAX5 haploinsufficiency induced CD8+ T cells dysfunction or exhaustion by high expression of immune inhibitory-related molecules

PURPOSE

PAX5 haploinsufficiency promoting tumorigenesis is related to immune escape. But the mechanisms of PAX5 mutations inducing tumor immune escape have not been clarified. Our aim was to study how PAX5 haploinsufficiency influences effector CD8 + T cells in tumor microenvironment.

METHODS

We estimated the proportions of 22 immune cell types and the expressions of immune inhibitory-related molecules based on gene expression profiles (GEPs) from children's B- acute lymphoblastic leukemia(B-ALL) with PAX5 mutations by CIBERSORT, an established algorithm. We constructed the PAX5 haplodeletion A20 cell lines, built allografted A20 tumor models and evaluated the effect of PAX5 haplodeletion on immune inhibitory-related molecules in the tumor microenvironment (TME).

RESULTS

Our results indicated the percentages of T cells in bone marrow of children's B-ALL with PAX5 mutations were not statistically different from that in bone marrow of B-ALL without PAX5 mutations, except for T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. But a variety of up-regulated immune inhibitory-related molecules in bone marrow of children's B- ALL with PAX5 mutations were identified. By different approaches, we found that several immune inhibitory-related molecules of CD8+ T cells in TME of PAX5 haplodeletion clones such as TIM3, NR4A1 and BATF, were increased significantly compared with that of PAX5 wild type control. The IFN-ɤ of CD8+ T cells in TME of PAX5 haplodeletion tumors was decreased significantly compared with that of PAX5 wild type control.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that PAX5 haploinsufficiency induced CD8+ T cells dysfunction or exhaustion by high expression of TIM3, NR4A1 and BATF in the CD8+ T cells of TME.

Regulatory T cells express Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 2 with the highest intensity among CD4+ T cells in the draining lymph nodes of breast cancer

Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 2 (TNFR2) is one of the receptors of TNF-α, which is expressed on various cell types. TNFR2 signaling has a balancing role between regulatory and effector functions of T cells. Herein, we investigated the expression of TNFR2 on regulatory T cells (Tregs) and non-Tregs in breast tumor-draining lymph nodes. Mononuclear cells were isolated from 16 axillary lymph nodes, and the expressions of TNFR2, Foxp3 and CD25 were assessed in CD4⁺ T cells by flow cytometry. Our results showed that the majority of TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ T cells were Foxp3^-CD25^-. However, the percentage of TNFR2⁺ cells was significantly higher in Foxp3⁺CD25⁺CD4⁺ Tregs compared to Foxp3^-CD25^-CD4⁺, Foxp3⁺CD25^-CD4⁺, and Foxp3^-CD25⁺CD4⁺ T cell subsets. Among these subsets, Foxp3⁺CD25⁺TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ T cells were found to have the highest intensity of TNFR2 expression. The intensity of Foxp3 expression in Foxp3⁺CD25⁺TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ Treg cells was significantly higher than in their TNFR2^- counterpart. Collectively, we showed that most of TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ T lymphocytes were Foxp3^-CD25^-, while the majority of Foxp3⁺CD25⁺CD4⁺ Tregs were TNFR2⁺, and they expressed TNFR2 with the highest intensity. This report highlights the importance of TNFR2 expression on Tregs and paves the way for further investigation of the effects of TNF-α on the suppressive activity of Tregs in the tumor microenvironment.