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Cheng F, Zhang T, Yang H, Liu Y, Qu J, Zhang YN, Peijnenburg WJGM. Effects of dissolved organic matter and halogen ions on phototransformation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in aquatic environments. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 469:134033. [PMID: 38521033 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Photochemical reactions contribute to the attenuation and transformation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface natural waters. Nevertheless, effects of DOM and halogen ions on phototransformation of PPCPs remain elusive. This work selected disparate PPCPs as target pollutants to investigate their aquatic phototransformation processes. Results show that PPCPs containing multiple electron-donating groups (-OH, -NH2, -OR, etc.) are more reactive with photochemically produced reactive intermediates (PPRIs) such as triplet DOM (3DOM*), singlet oxygen (1O2), and reactive halogen species (RHSs), relative to PPCPs containing electron-withdrawing groups (-NOR, -COOR, -OCR, etc.). The generation of RHSs as a result of the coexistance of DOM and halide ions changed the contribution of PPRIs to the photochemical conversion of PPCPs during their migration from fresh water to seawater. For PPCPs (AMP, SMZ, PN, NOR, CIP, etc) with highly reactive groups toward RHSs, the generation of RHSs facilitated their photolysis in halide ion-rich waters, where Cl- plays a critical role in the photochemical transformation of PPCPs. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations showed that single electron transfer and H-abstraction are main reaction pathways of RHSs with the PPCPs. These results demonstate the irreplaceable roles of PPRIs and revealing the underlying reaction mechanisms during the phototransformation of PPCPs, which contributes to a better understanding of the environmental behaviors of PPCPs in complex aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Cheng
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, PR China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, PR China
| | - Hao Yang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, PR China
| | - Yue Liu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, PR China
| | - Jiao Qu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, PR China
| | - Ya-Nan Zhang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, PR China.
| | - Willie J G M Peijnenburg
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Żandarek J, Żmudzki P, Obradović D, Lazović S, Bogojević A, Koszła O, Sołek P, Maciąg M, Płazińska A, Starek M, Dąbrowska M. Analysis of pharmacokinetic profile and ecotoxicological character of cefepime and its photodegradation products. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 353:141529. [PMID: 38428534 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
An important problem is the impact of photodegradation on product toxicity in biological tests, which may be complex and context-dependent. Previous studies have described the pharmacology of cefepime, but the toxicological effects of its photodegradation products remain largely unknown. Therefore, photodegradation studies were undertaken in conditions similar to those occurring in biological systems insilico, in vitro, in vivo and ecotoxicological experiments. The structures of four cefepime photodegradation products were determined by UPLC-MS/MS method. The calculated in silico ADMET profile indicates that carcinogenic potential is expected for compounds CP-1, cefepime, CP-2 and CP-3. The Cell Line Cytomotovity Predictor 2.0 tool was used to predict the cytotoxic effects of cefepime and related compounds in non-transformed and cancer cell lines. The results indicate that possible actions include: non-small cell lung cancer, breast adenocarcinoma, prostate cancer and papillary renal cell carcinoma. OPERA models were used to predict absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) endpoints, and potential bioactivity of CP-2, cefepime and CP-4. The results obtained in silico show that after 96h of exposure, cefepime, CP-1, CP-2, and CP-3 are moderately toxic in the zebrafish model, while CP-4 is highly toxic. On the contrary, cefepime is more toxic to T. platyurus (highly toxic) compared to the zebrafish model, similar to products CP-4, CP-3 and CP-2. In vitro cytotoxicity studies were performed by MTT assay and in vivo acute embryo toxicity studies using Danio rerio embryos and larvae. In vitro showed an increase in the cytotoxicity of products with the longest exposure period i.e. for 8 h. Additionally, at a concentration of 200 μg/mL, statistically significant changes in metabolic activity were observed depending on the irradiation time. In vivo studies conducted with Zebrafish showed that both cefepime and its photodegradation products have only low toxicity. Assessment of potential ecotoxicity included Microbiotests on invertebrates (Thamnotoxkit F and Daphtoxkit F), and luminescence inhibition tests (LumiMara). The observed toxicity of the tested solutions towards both Thamnocephalus platyurus and Daphnia magna indicates that the parent substance (unexposed) has lower toxicity, which increases during irradiation. The acute toxicity (Lumi Mara) of nonirradiated cefepime solution is low for all tested strains (<10%), but mixtures of cefepime and its photoproducts showed growth inhibition against all tested strains (except #6, Photobacterium phoreum). Generally, it can be concluded that after UV-Vis irradiation, the mixture of cefepime phototransformation products shows a significant increase in toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Żandarek
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna St, 30-688, Kraków, Poland; Doctoral School of Medical and Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 16 Łazarza St, 31-530, Kraków, Poland
| | - Paweł Żmudzki
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, 9 Medyczna, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Darija Obradović
- Institute of Physics Belgrade, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Saša Lazović
- Institute of Physics Belgrade, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandar Bogojević
- Institute of Physics Belgrade, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Oliwia Koszła
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki St, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Przemysław Sołek
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki St, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; Department of Biochemistry and Toxicology, University of Life Sciences, 13 Akademicka St, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
| | - Monika Maciąg
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki St, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki St, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anita Płazińska
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki St, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Starek
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna St, 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Monika Dąbrowska
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna St, 30-688, Kraków, Poland.
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