Recommended protocol for the Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cell transformation assay

In Vitro Approaches to Determine the Potential Carcinogenic Risk of Environmental Pollutants

One important environmental/health challenge is to determine, in a feasible way, the potential carcinogenic risk associated with environmental agents/exposures. Since a significant proportion of tumors have an environmental origin, detecting the potential carcinogenic risk of environmental agents is mandatory, as regulated by national and international agencies. The challenge mainly implies finding a way of how to overcome the inefficiencies of long-term trials with rodents when thousands of agents/exposures need to be tested. To such an end, the use of in vitro cell transformation assays (CTAs) was proposed, but the existing prevalidated CTAs do not cover the complexity associated with carcinogenesis processes and present serious limitations. To overcome such limitations, we propose to use a battery of assays covering most of the hallmarks of the carcinogenesis process. For the first time, we grouped such assays as early, intermediate, or advanced biomarkers which allow for the identification of the cells in the initiation, promotion or aggressive stages of tumorigenesis. Our proposal, as a novelty, points out that using a battery containing assays from all three groups can identify if a certain agent/exposure can pose a carcinogenic risk; furthermore, it can gather mechanistic insights into the mode of the action of a specific carcinogen. This structured battery could be very useful for any type of in vitro study, containing human cell lines aiming to detect the potential carcinogenic risks of environmental agents/exposures. In fact, here, we include examples in which these approaches were successfully applied. Finally, we provide a series of advantages that, we believe, contribute to the suitability of our proposed approach for the evaluation of exposure-induced carcinogenic effects and for the development of an alternative strategy for conducting an exposure risk assessment.

DNA adducts as link between in vitro and in vivo carcinogenicity - A case study with benzo[a]pyrene

To reduce the need for animal tests, in vitro assays are often used as alternative methods. To derive toxic doses for higher tier organisms from in vitro assay results, quantitative in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (qIVIVE) based on physiological-based toxicokinetic (PBTK) models is typically the preferred approach. Such PBTK models require many input parameters to address the route from dose to target site concentration. However, respective data is very often not available. Hence, our aim is to call attention to an alternative way to build a link between animal (in vivo) and cell-derived (in vitro) toxicity data. To this end, we selected the carcinogenic chemical benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) for our study. Our approach relates both in vitro assay and in vivo data to a main intermediate marker structure for carcinogenicity on the subcellular level - the BaP-DNA adduct BaP-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide-deoxyguanosine. Thus, BaP dose is directly linked to a measure of the toxicity-initiating event. We used Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) and Balb/c 3T3 cell transformation assay as in vitro data and compared these data to outcomes of in vivo carcinogenicity tests in rodents. In vitro and in vivo DNA adduct levels range within three orders of magnitude. Especially metabolic saturation at higher doses and interspecies variabilities are identified and critically discussed as possible sources of errors in our simplified approach. Finally, our study points out possible routes to overcome limitations of the envisaged approach in order to allow for a reliable qIVIVE in the future.

A mechanistic evaluation of the Syrian hamster embryo cell transformation assay (pH 6.7) and molecular events leading to senescence bypass in SHE cells

The implementation of the Syrian hamster embryo cell transformation assay (SHE CTA) into test batteries and its relevance in predicting carcinogenicity has been long debated. Despite prevalidation studies to ensure reproducibility and minimise the subjective nature of the assay's endpoint, an underlying mechanistic and molecular basis supporting morphological transformation (MT) as an indicator of carcinogenesis is still missing. We found that only 20% of benzo(a)pyrene-induced MT clones immortalised suggesting that, alone, the MT phenotype is insufficient for senescence bypass. From a total of 12 B(a)P- immortalised MT lines, inactivating p53 mutations were identified in 30% of clones, and the majority of these were consistent with the potent carcinogen's mode of action. Expression of p16 was commonly silenced or markedly reduced with extensive promoter methylation observed in 45% of MT clones, while Bmi1 was strongly upregulated in 25% of clones. In instances where secondary events to MT appeared necessary for senescence bypass, as evidenced by a transient cellular crisis, clonal growth correlated with monoallelic deletion of the CDKN2A/B locus. The findings further implicate the importance of p16 and p53 pathways in regulating senescence while providing a molecular evaluation of SHE CTA -derived variant MT clones induced by benzo(a)pyrene.

In Vitro-In Vivo Carcinogenicity

The evaluation of the carcinogenic potential of chemicals constitutes an essential step in assessing the risk that the chemicals pose to human health. The "gold standard" method to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of chemicals is the carcinogenicity test in laboratory animals. However, because carcinogenicity studies in vivo are extremely time-consuming, expensive, make use of a high number of animals, and cannot be used to screen a high number of compounds at the same time, various different in vitro cell transformation assays have been developed. In this report, procedures to test the carcinogenicity in vivo and in vitro are described, whereby in the latter case three extensively evaluated test systems (the BALB/c 3T3 cell transformation assay, the Bhas 42 cell transformation assay, and the Syrian hamster embryo assay) are presented. Their performance shows that they are a useful complement to in vitro genotoxicity test batteries, can be used to identify non-genotoxic carcinogens, and as screening assays may significantly limit the number of chemicals to undergo an in vivo carcinogenicity testing, thereby strongly reducing the number of laboratory animals to be used. In the future, the development of human cell line-based transformation assays may contribute to increase further their relevance and the willingness to incorporate them into existing in vitro toxicity test batteries.

IARC classes 1 and 2 carcinogens are successfully identified by an alternative strategy that detects DNA-reactivity and cell transformation ability of chemicals

For decades, traditional toxicology has been the ultimate source of information on the carcinogenic potential of chemicals; however with increasing demand on regulation of chemicals and decreasing resources for testing, opportunities to accept "alternative" approaches have dramatically expanded. The need for tools able to identify carcinogens in shorter times and at a lower cost in terms of animal lives and money is still an open issue, and the present strategies and regulations for carcinogenicity pre-screening do not adequately protect human health. In previous papers, we have proposed an integrated in vitro/in silico strategy that detects DNA-reactivity and tissue disorganization/disruption by chemicals, and we have shown that the combination of Salmonella and Structural Alerts for the DNA-reactive carcinogens, and in vitro cell transformation assays for nongenotoxic carcinogens permits the identification of a very large proportion (up to 95%) of rodent carcinogens, while having a considerable specificity with the rodent noncarcinogens. In the present paper we expand the previous investigation and show that this alternative strategy identifies correctly IARC Classes 1 and 2 carcinogens. If implemented, this alternative strategy can contribute to improve the protection of human health while decreasing the use of animals.

Assessment of the genotoxic and carcinogenic potentials of 3-aminothiophene derivatives using in vitro and in silico methodologies

Thiophene derivatives, a class of compounds widely used in products such as pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals or dyestuffs, represent chemicals of concern. Indeed, the thiophene ring is often considered as a structural moiety that may be involved in toxic effects in humans. We primarily focus on the genotoxic/mutagenic and carcinogenic potentials of the methyl 3-amino-4-methylthiophene-2-carboxylate (1), a precursor of the articaine local anesthetic (4) which falls within the scope of the European REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of CHemicals) legislation. To discern some structure-toxicity relationships, we also studied two related compounds, namely the 3-amino 4-methylthiophene (2) and the 2-acetyl 4-chlorothiophene (3). Techniques employed to assess mutagenic and DNA-damaging effects involved the Salmonella mutagenicity assay (or Ames test) and the single-cell gel electrophoresis assay (or Comet assay). In the range of tested doses, none of these derivatives led to a positive response in the Ames tests and DNA damage was only observed in the Comet assay after high concentration exposure of 2. The study of their carcinogenic potential using the in vitro SHE (Syrian Hamster Embryo) cell transformation assay (CTA) highlighted the activity of compound 2. A combination of experimental data with in silico predictions of the reactivity of thiophene derivatives towards cytochrome P450 (CYP450), enabled us to hypothesize possible pathways leading to these toxicological profiles.

Miniaturization of cytotoxicity tests for concentration range-finding studies prior to conducting the pH 6.7 Syrian hamster embryo cell-transformation assay

The Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cell-transformation assay (SHE assay) is a promising alternative method to animal testing for the identification of potential carcinogens in vitro. Prior to conducting the SHE assay the appropriate concentration range for each test chemical must be established, with a maximum concentration causing approximately 50% cytotoxicity. Concentration range-finding is done in separate experiments, which are similar to the final SHE assay but with less replicates and more concentrations. Here we present an alternative for the cytotoxicity testing by miniaturization of the test procedure by use of 24-well plates and surpluses from feeder-cell preparations as target cells. In addition, we integrated the photometry-based neutral red (NR) assay. For validation of the assay, incubations with dimethyl sulf-oxide, p-phenylenediamine-2HCl, aniline, o-toluidine-HCl, 2,4-diaminotoluene, and 2-naphthylamine were carried out in the miniaturized approach and compared with the standard procedure in terms of calculating the relative plating efficiencies (RPEs). To directly compare both methods, concentrations that produced 50% cytotoxicity (IC50) were calculated. Excellent associations were observed between the number of colonies and NR uptake. For all test substances a concentration-dependent, concomitant decrease of NR uptake in the miniaturized approach and RPEs in the standard test was observed after a 7-day incubation. The results from both test setups showed a comparable order of magnitude and the IC50 values differed by a factor <2 (1.4-1.9), depending on the substance in question. Overall, the miniaturized approach should be considered an improved alternative for cytotoxicity testing in the SHE assay, as it saves valuable SHE cells and speeds-up the time, to obtain test results more rapidly.

Photo catalogue for the classification of cell colonies in the Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cell transformation assay at pH 7.0

This catalogue is a display of Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cell colony photos representative of the cell transformation assay (CTA) carried out at pH 7.0. It is intended as a visual aid for the identification and the scoring of cell colonies in the conduct of the assay. A proper training from experienced personnel together with the protocol reported in this issue and the present photo catalogue will support method transfer and consistency in the assay results.

Photo catalogue for the classification of cell colonies in the Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cell transformation assay at pH 6.7

This catalogue is a display of Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cell colony photos representative of the cell transformation assay (CTA) carried out at pH 6.7. It is intended as a visual aid for the identification and the scoring of cell colonies in the conduct of the assay. A proper training from experienced personnel together with the protocol reported in this issue and the present photo catalogue will support method transfer and consistency in the assay results.

ECVAM prevalidation study on in vitro cell transformation assays: general outline and conclusions of the study

The potential for a compound to induce carcinogenicity is a key consideration when ascertaining hazard and risk assessment of chemicals. Among the in vitro alternatives that have been developed for predicting carcinogenicity, in vitro cell transformation assays (CTAs) have been shown to involve a multistage process that closely models important stages of in vivo carcinogenesis and have the potential to detect both genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogens. These assays have been in use for decades and a substantial amount of data demonstrating their performance is available in the literature. However, for the standardised use of these assays for regulatory purposes, a formal evaluation of the assays, in particular focusing on development of standardised transferable protocols and further information on assay reproducibility, was considered important to serve as a basis for the drafting of generally accepted OECD test guidelines. To address this issue, a prevalidation study of the CTAs using the BALB/c 3T3 cell line, SHE cells at pH 6.7, and SHE cells at pH 7.0 was coordinated by the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) and focused on issues of standardisation of protocols, test method transferability and within- and between-laboratory reproducibility. The study resulted in the availability of standardised protocols that had undergone prevalidation [1,2]. The results of the ECVAM study demonstrated that for the BALB/c 3T3 method, some modifications to the protocol were needed to obtain reproducible results between laboratories, while the SHE pH 6.7 and the SHE pH 7.0 protocols are transferable between laboratories, and results are reproducible within- and between-laboratories. It is recommended that the BALB/c 3T3 and SHE protocols as instituted in this prevalidation study should be used in future applications of these respective transformation assays. To support their harmonised use and regulatory application, the development of an OECD test guideline for the SHE CTAs, based on the protocol published in this issue, is recommended. The development of an OECD test guideline for the BALB/c 3T3 CTA should likewise be further pursued upon the availability of additional supportive data and improvement of the statistical analysis.

OECD Detailed Review Paper (DRP) number 31 on "Cell Transformation Assays for Detection of Chemical Carcinogens": main results and conclusions

The Detailed Review Paper (DRP) number 31 of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) analyses the performance of the three models used in Cell Transformation Assays (CTAs) to screen the carcinogenic potential of chemicals: the Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells, and the mouse cell lines BALB/c 3T3 and C3H10T1/2. The CTA results have been compared to results from recent genotoxicity tests using mammalian and non-mammalian cell systems. The performance of the CTAs in predicting carcinogenic potential has been established on several hundreds of chemicals, comprising organic and inorganic substances. The results have been analysed and the chemicals classified as rodent and/or human carcinogens. Based on this comparison and on their performance - concordance, sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive capacity, and evidence for intra- and inter-laboratory reproducibility - OECD recommended that the CTAs using the SHE cells (carried out at physiological or acidic pH) and the BALB/c 3T3 cell line should be developed into OECD test guidelines. The CTA using the C3H10T1/2 cell line was considered to be useful to elucidate molecular mechanisms of cell transformation at the genomic and transcriptomic level. However, due to the limited data available on reproducibility, a test guideline was not recommended at that time.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) acts as a tumor promoter on Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (C(8)F(17)SO(3)) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) (C(8)HF(15)O(2)) are synthetic chemicals widely used in industrial applications for their hydrophobic and oleophobic properties. They are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic to mammalian species. Their widespread distribution on earth and contamination of human serum raised concerns about long-term side effects. They are suspected to be carcinogenic through a nongenotoxic mode of action, a mechanism supported by recent findings that PFOS induced cell transformation but no genotoxicity in Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells. In the present study, we evaluated carcinogenic potential of PFOA using the cell transformation assay on SHE cells. The chemical was applied alone or in combination with a nontransformant concentration of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP, 0.4 μM) in order to detect PFOA ability to act as tumor initiator or tumor promoter. The results showed that PFOA tested alone in the range 3.7 × 10(-5) to 300 μM did not induce SHE cell transformation frequency in a 7-day treatment. On the other side, the combination BaP/PFOA induced cell transformation at all PFOA concentrations tested, which revealed synergistic effects. No genotoxicity of PFOA on SHE cells was detected using the comet assay after 5 and 24 h of exposure. No significant increase in DNA breakage was found in BaP-initiated cells exposed to PFOA in a 7-day treatment. The whole results showed that PFOA acts as a tumor promoter and a nongenotoxic carcinogen. Cell transformation in initiated cells was observed at concentrations equivalent to the ones found in human serum of nonoccupationally and occupationally exposed populations. An involvement of PFOA in increased incidence of cancer recorded in occupationally exposed population cannot be ruled out.