Four-Dimensional Flow MR Imaging: Technique and Advances

Quantifying CSF Flow with Phase Contrast Techniques

MR has unique possibilities to noninvasively quantify cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow in several parts of the spinal canal and ventricular system. This article describes the MR phase contrast (PC) technique for velocity and flow measurements, including the most common pitfalls. Developments of the basic technique toward real-time PC, dual-venc PC, and volumetric PC are introduced. The article also includes examples of CSF motion measurements using the various methods.