In vitro anti-cancer activity and pharmacokinetic evaluation of curcumin-loaded lipid nanocapsules

Antibacterial and anti-virulence activity of eco-friendly resveratrol-loaded lipid nanocapsules against methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is challenging modern antimicrobial therapy due to its high antimicrobial resistance. Nutraceuticals have gained a lot of interest and their incorporation into nanoparticles further improves their efficacy. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of linalool-based lipid nanocapsules loaded with resveratrol (LIN-LNC-RES) as a synergistic strategy against MRSA. LIN-LNC-RES were prepared by the phase inversion temperature method and characterized for their colloidal properties, in vitro release, and stability. The antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against S. aureus and different MRSA clinical isolates were investigated. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging for visualization of biofilm formation and bacterial membrane integrity as well as mechanistic investigation using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis were performed. LIN-LNCs-RES demonstrated favorable properties with a size of 35.19 ± 0.72 nm, PDI of 0.09 ± 0.02 and a zeta potential of -2.53 ± 0.07 mV with RES 98% EE. They showed a controlled release of RES over 24 h and were stable at 4 °C for 3 months. Compared to free drug, LIN-LNC-RES showed a 4-fold decrease in MIC values and 10-fold decrease in half maximal biofilm inhibitory concentration value. Biofilm eradication assay showed superiority of LIN-LNC-RES over RES against all isolates with disrupted bacterial membranes as revealed by SEM. Mechanistically, qRT-PCR showed that LIN-LNC-RES significantly reduced RNAIII gene expression as well as the expression of SaeRS two component system, potentially affecting quorum sensing and virulence factors expression. RES-loaded LIN-based nanosystem offers a great potential for combating MRSA infections, neutralizing its virulence activity hence, overcoming antimicrobial resistance.

Curcumin: A Natural Warrior Against Inflammatory Liver Diseases

Curcumin (CUR), a bioactive compound found in turmeric, has garnered attention for its potential anti-inflammatory properties and impact on liver health. Numerous studies suggest that CUR may be crucial in mitigating liver inflammation. The compound's anti-inflammatory effects are believed to be attributed to its ability to modulate various molecular pathways involved in the inflammatory response. Research indicates that CUR may suppress the activation of inflammatory cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the liver. Additionally, it has been observed to inhibit the activity of transcription factors that play a key role in inflammation. By targeting these molecular mechanisms, CUR may help alleviate the inflammatory burden on the liver. Moreover, CUR's antioxidant properties are thought to contribute to its protective effects on the liver. Oxidative stress is closely linked to inflammation, and CUR's ability to neutralize free radicals may further support its anti-inflammatory action. While the evidence is promising, it is essential to note that more research is needed to fully understand the precise mechanisms through which CUR influences liver inflammation. Nevertheless, these findings suggest that CUR could be a potential therapeutic agent in managing liver inflammatory conditions. In this review, we explore the potential impact of CUR on inflammation, highlighting the key mechanisms involved, as reported in the literature.

Understanding the formulation parameters for engineering indocyanine green J-aggregate lipid nanocapsules and solid lipid nanoparticles as promising photothermal agents

Indocyanine green J-aggregate (IJA) is a promising photothermal (PTT) agent that has recently been utilised in preclinical studies for cancer diagnostics and treatment. The unique properties, such as the red-shift absorption band and longer wavelengths, are behind IJA's superior thermal stability compared to its monomeric ICG. Loading IJA into nanoparticles (NPs) has proven advantageous in enhancing its in vivo targeting of various cancer models. However, the loading of IJA into more complex lipids, such as lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), has not been reported. The present work focuses on investigations of the effect of formulation parameters on pre-formed IJA (p-IJA) stability and the formation of p-IJA-loaded LNCs and SLNs, thus enhancing their theranostic applications. We investigated the effect of the lipid shell of LNCs and the lipid core of SLN on p-IJA stability. Our findings demonstrated the significant role of lipophilic surfactants (Span 85) and a high-melting-point lipid core (sodium stearate) in enhancing the p-IJA ratio and heating capacity following loading into SLNs. More importantly, p-IJA-SLN enhanced the optical stability of p-IJA in a range of biological media, such as serum proteins, blood, and collagen. Furthermore, lyophilised p-IJA-SLNs were successfully obtained after long-term storage. Overall, p-IJA-loaded lipid NPs could provide a promising platform for various applications, including photoacoustic imaging, PTT, photodynamic therapy (PDT), and combination therapy with chemotherapeutics.

Exploring the World of Curcumin: Photophysics, Photochemistry, and Applications in Nanoscience and Biology

Curcumin is a bright yellow naturally occurring polyphenol which is the principal component of turmeric. It is used as herbal supplement, cosmetics ingredient, and food coloring agent. Over the years, the therapeutic properties of the natural product curcumin have gone unexploited but not unnoticed. Curcumin cannot be employed as a drug due to limitations such as low aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. Many attempts have been made to overcome these limitations by confining the drug in various confined media to enhance its bioavailability. The biomolecule is emissive and undergoes fundamental excited state processes such as solvation dynamics and excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT). Curcumin based biomaterials and nanomaterials are also a fast advancing field where curcumin is an intrinsic component necessary for formation of these materials and no longer added as an external free drug. In this review, we will summarize the recent research on the photophysical and photochemical properties of curcumin and its excited state dynamics in various bio-mimicking systems. At the same time we wish to also incorporate the various applications of curcumin, especially in biology. Lastly due to the growing importance of materials science, we will briefly discuss some recent advances on curcumin based biomaterials and nanomaterials. We believe such a compilation of recent research surrounding curcumin will provide an overall understanding of its potentialities in different areas.

Potential of Natural Products in the Treatment of Glioma: Focus on Molecular Mechanisms

Despite the waning of traditional treatments for glioma due to possible long-term issues, the healing possibilities of substances derived from nature have been reignited in the scientific community. These natural substances, commonly found in fruits and vegetables, are considered potential alternatives to pharmaceuticals, as they have been shown in prior research to impact pathways surrounding cancer progression, metastases, invasion, and resistance. This review will explore the supposed molecular mechanisms of different natural components, such as berberine, curcumin, coffee, resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, quercetin, tanshinone, silymarin, coumarin, and lycopene, concerning glioma treatment. While the benefits of a balanced diet containing these compounds are widely recognized, there is considerable scope for investigating the efficacy of these natural products in treating glioma.

Lipid-Based Nanocarriers: Bridging Diagnosis and Cancer Therapy

Theranostics is a growing field that matches diagnostics and therapeutics. In this approach, drugs and techniques are uniquely coupled to diagnose and treat medical conditions synergically or sequentially. By integrating diagnostic and treatment functions in a single platform, the aim of theranostics is to improve precision medicine by tailoring treatments based on real-time information. In this context, lipid-based nanocarriers have attracted great scientific attention due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities. The present review highlights the latest research advances in the field of lipid-based nanocarriers for cancer theranostics, exploring several ways of improving in vivo performance and addressing associated challenges. These nanocarriers have significant potential to create new perspectives in the field of nanomedicine and offer promise for a significant step towards more personalized and precise medicine, reducing side effects and improving clinical outcomes for patients. This review also presents the actual barriers to and the possible challenges in the use of nanoparticles in the theranostic field, such as regulatory hurdles, high costs, and technological integration. Addressing these issues through a multidisciplinary and collaborative approach among institutions could be essential for advancing lipid nanocarriers in the theranostic field. Such collaborations can leverage diverse expertise and resources, fostering innovation and overcoming the complex challenges associated with clinical translation. This approach will be crucial for realizing the full potential of lipid-based nanocarriers in precision medicine.

Lipidic Nanosystem as State-of-the-Art Nanovehicle for Biomedical Applications

Lipids have tremendously transformed the biomedical field, especially in the last few decades. Nanosystems, especially Lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), have emerged as the most demanding nanovehicle systems for delivering drugs, genes, and other diagnostic agents. Unique attributes and characteristic features such as higher encapsulation efficiency, stealth effect, ability to solubilize a wide range of drugs, capability to inhibit P-gp efflux pumps, and higher stability play a vital role in engaging this nanosystem. LNCs are a lipid-based nano-drug delivery method that combines the most significant traits of liposomes with polymeric nanoparticles. Structurally, LNCs have an oily core consisting of medium and long triglycerides and an aqueous phase encased in an amphiphilic shell. This manuscript crosstalks LNCs for various biomedical applications. A detailed elaboration of the structural composition, methods of preparation, and quality control aspects has also been attained, with particular emphasis on application approaches, ongoing challenges, and their possible resolution. The manuscript also expounds the preclinical data and discusses the patents atlas of LNCs to assist biomedical scientists working in this area and foster additional research.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-024-01298-3.

Novel nano-drug delivery system for natural products and their application

The development of natural products for potential new drugs faces obstacles such as unknown mechanisms, poor solubility, and limited bioavailability, which limit the broadened applicability of natural products. Therefore, there is a need for advanced pharmaceutical formulations of active compounds or natural products. In recent years, novel nano-drug delivery systems (NDDS) for natural products, including nanosuspensions, nanoliposomes, micelle, microemulsions/self-microemulsions, nanocapsules, and solid lipid nanoparticles, have been developed to improve solubility, bioavailability, and tissue distribution as well as for prolonged retention and enhanced permeation. Here, we updated the NDDS delivery systems used for natural products with the potential enhancement in therapeutic efficiency observed with nano-delivery systems.

Lipid-core nanoparticles: Classification, preparation methods, routes of administration and recent advances in cancer treatment

Nanotechnological drug delivery platforms represent a new paradigm for cancer therapeutics as they improve the pharmacokinetic profile and distribution of chemotherapeutic agents over conventional formulations. Among nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoplatforms possessing a lipid core, that is, lipid-core nanoparticles (LCNPs), have gained increasing interest due to lipid properties such as high solubilizing potential, versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, due to the wide spectrum of morphologies and types of LCNPs, there is a lack of consensus regarding their terminology and classification. According to the current state-of-the-art in this critical review, LCNPs are defined and classified based on the state of their lipidic components in liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs). These include lipid nanoemulsions (LNEs) and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs). In addition, we present a comprehensive and comparative description of the methods employed for their preparation, routes of administration and the fundamental role of physicochemical properties of LCNPs for efficient antitumoral drug-delivery application. Market available LCNPs, clinical trials and preclinical in vivo studies of promising LCNPs as potential treatments for different cancer pathologies are summarized.

Chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose-based 3D multifunctional bioactive hydrogels loaded with nano-curcumin for synergistic diabetic wound repair

Biopolymer-based thermoresponsive injectable hydrogels with multifunctional tunable characteristics containing anti-oxidative, biocompatibility, anti-infection, tissue regeneration, and/or anti-bacterial are of abundant interest to proficiently stimulate diabetic wound regeneration and are considered as a potential candidate for diversified biomedical application but the development of such hydrogels remains a challenge. In this study, the Chitosan-CMC-g-PF127 injectable hydrogels are developed using solvent casting. The Curcumin (Cur) Chitosan-CMC-g-PF127 injectable hydrogels possess viscoelastic behavior, good swelling properties, and a controlled release profile. The degree of substitution (% DS), thermal stability, morphological behavior, and crystalline characteristics of the developed injectable hydrogels is confirmed using nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR), thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), respectively. The controlled release of cur-micelles from the hydrogel is evaluated by drug release studies and pharmacokinetic profile (PK) using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Furthermore, compared to cur micelles the Cur-laden injectable hydrogel shows a significant increase in half-life (t_1/2) up to 5.92 ± 0.7 h, mean residence time (MRT) was 15.75 ± 0.76 h, and area under the first moment curve (AUMC) is 3195.62 ± 547.99 μg/mL*(h)² which reveals the controlled release behavior. Cytocompatibility analysis of Chitosan-CMC-g-PF127 hydrogels using 3T3-L1 fibroblasts cells and in vivo toxicity by subcutaneous injection followed by histological examination confirmed good biocompatibility of Cur-micelles loaded hydrogels. The histological results revealed the promising tissue regenerative ability and shows enhancement of fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and collagen deposition, which stimulates the epidermal junction. Interestingly, the Chitosan-CMC-g-PF127 injectable hydrogels ladened Cur exhibited a swift wound repair potential by up-surging the cell migration and proliferation at the site of injury and providing a sustained drug delivery platform for hydrophobic moieties.

Alginate-pectin microparticles loaded with nanoemulsions as nanocomposites for wound healing

This work combines natural polymers with nanoemulsions (NEs) to formulate nanocomposites as an innovative wound dressing. Spray-drying has been used to produce alginate-pectin in situ gelling powders as carriers for NEs loaded with curcumin (CCM), a model antimicrobial drug. The influence of NEs encapsulation in polymer-based microparticles was studied in terms of particle size distribution, morphology, and stability after spray-drying. NEs loading did not affect the size of microparticles which was around 3.5 µm, while the shape and surface morphology analyzed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) changed from irregular to spherical. Nanocomposites as dried powders were able to form a gel in less than 5 min when in contact with simulated wound fluid (SWF), while the value of moisture transmission of the in situ formed hydrogels allowed to promote good wound transpiration. Moreover, rheologic analyses showed that in situ formed gels loaded with NEs appeared more elastic than blank formulations. The in situ formed gel allowed the prolonged release of CCM-loaded NEs in the wound bed, reaching 100% in 24 h. Finally, powders cytocompatibility was confirmed by incubation with keratinocyte cells (HaCaT), proving that such nanocomposites can be considered a potential candidate for wound dressings.

Graphical Abstract

Ferrocifen stealth LNCs and conventional chemotherapy: A promising combination against multidrug-resistant ovarian adenocarcinoma

Ovarian cancer is one of the deadliest epithelial malignancies in women, owing to the multidrug resistance that restricts the success of conventional chemotherapy, carboplatin and paclitaxel. High grade serous ovarian carcinoma can be classified into two subtypes, the chemosensitive High OXPHOS and the Low OXPHOS tumour, less sensitive to chemotherapy. This difference of treatment efficacy could be explained by the redox status of these tumours, High OXPHOS exhibiting a chronic oxidative stress and an accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Ferrocifens, bio-organometallic compounds, are believed to be ROS producers with a good cytotoxicity on ovarian cancer cell lines. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of ferrocifen stealth lipid nanocapsules on High and Low OXPHOS ovarian Patient-Derived Xenograft models, alone or in combination to standard chemotherapy. Accordingly, two ferrocifens, P53 and P722, were encapsulated in stealth LNCs. The treatment by stealth P722-LNCs in combination with standard chemotherapy induced, with a concentration eight time lower than in stealth P53-LNCs, similar tumour reduction on a Low OXPHOS model, allowing us to conclude that P722 could be a leading ferrocifen to treat ovarian cancer. This combination of treatments may represent a promising synergistic approach to treat resistant ovarian adenocarcinoma.

Utility of Intravenous Curcumin Nanodelivery Systems for Improving In Vivo Pharmacokinetics and Anticancer Pharmacodynamics

Curcumin nanoformulations for intravenous injection have been developed to offset poor absorption, biotransformation, degradation, and excessive clearance associated with parenteral delivery. This review investigates (1) whether intravenous nanoformulations improve curcumin pharmacokinetics (PK) and (2) whether improved PK yields greater therapeutic efficacy. Standard PK parameters (measured maximum concentration [Cmax], area under the curve [AUC], distribution volume [Vd], and clearance [CL]) of intravenously administered free curcumin in mice and rats were sourced from literature and compared to curcumin formulated in nanoparticles, micelles, and liposomes. The studies that also featured analysis of pharmacodynamics (PD) in murine cancer models were used to determine whether improved PK of nanoencapsulated curcumin resulted in improved PD. The distribution and clearance of free and nanoformulated curcumin were very fast, typically accounting for >80% curcumin elimination from plasma within 60 min. Case-matched analysis demonstrated that curcumin nanoencapsulation generally improved curcumin PK in terms of measured Cmax (n = 27) and AUC (n = 33), and to a lesser extent Vd and CL. However, when the data were unpaired and clustered for comparative analysis, only 5 out of the 12 analyzed nanoformulations maintained a higher relative curcumin concentration in plasma over time compared to free curcumin. Quantitative analysis of the mean plasma concentration of free curcumin versus nanoformulated curcumin did not reveal an overall marked improvement in curcumin PK. No correlation was found between PK and PD, suggesting that augmentation of the systemic presence of curcumin does not necessarily lead to greater therapeutic efficacy.

Anti-tumor pharmacology of natural products targeting mitosis

Cancer has been an insurmountable problem in the history of medical science. The uncontrollable proliferation of cancer cells is one of cancer’s main characteristics, which is closely associated with abnormal mitosis. Targeting mitosis is an effective method for cancer treatment. This review summarizes several natural products with anti-tumor effects related to mitosis, focusing on targeting microtubulin, inducing DNA damage, and modulating mitosis-associated kinases. Furthermore, the main disadvantages of several typical compounds, including drug resistance, toxicity to non-tumor tissues, and poor aqueous solubility and pharmacokinetic properties, are also discussed, together with strategies to address them. Improved understanding of cancer cell mitosis and natural products may pave the way to drug development for the treatment of cancer.

Selective delivery of curcumin to breast cancer cells by self-targeting apoferritin nanocages with pH-responsive and low toxicity

Breast cancer is prevalent and diverse with significantly high incidence and mortality rates. Curcumin (Cur), a polyphenol component of turmeric, has been widely recognized as having strong anti-breast cancer activity. However, its anti-cancer efficiency is largely impaired by some of its concomitant negative properties, including its poor solubility, low cellular uptake, and severe reported side effects. Hence, the necessity arises to develop a novel low-toxic and high-efficiency targeting drug delivery system (DDS). In this study, we developed a pH-sensitive tumor self-targeting DDS (Cur@HFn) based on self-assembled HFn loaded with Cur, in which Cur was encapsulated into HFn cavity by using a disassembly/reassembly strategy, and the Cur@HFn was characterized by ultraviolet–visible (UV–vis), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscope (TEM). A variety of breast cancer cell models were built to evaluate cytotoxicity, apoptosis, targeting properties, and uptake mechanism of the Cur@HFn. The pharmacodynamics was also evaluated in tumor (4T1) bearing mice after intravenous injection. In vitro release experiments showed that Cur@HFn is pH sensitive and shows sustained drug release under slightly acidic conditions. Compared with Cur, Cur@HFn has stronger cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and targeting performance. Our study supported that Cur@HFn has a higher in vivo therapeutic effect and lower systemic toxicity. The safety evaluation results indicated that Cur@HFn has no hematotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity. The findings of the present study showed that the Cur@HFn has been successfully prepared and has potential application value in the treatment of breast cancer.

Mesoporous silica@chitosan@gold nanoparticles as "on/off" optical biosensor and pH-sensitive theranostic platform against cancer

A cancer nanotheranostic system was fabricated based on mesoporous silica@chitosan@gold (MCM@CS@Au) nanosystem targeted by aptamer toward the MUC-1 positive tumor cells. Subsequently, curcumin as an efficient herbal anticancer drug was first encapsulated into chitosan-triphosphate nanoparticles and then the resulted nanoparticle was loaded into the nanosystem (MCM@CS@Au-Apt). The nanosystem successful fabrication was approved at each synthesis step through FTIR, XRD, BET, DLS, FE-SEM, HRTEM, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Besides, the interaction between aptamer and curcumin was evaluated using full atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. The mechanism of curcumin release was likewise investigated through different kinetic models. Afterwards, the potential of the designed nanosystem in targeted imaging, and drug delivery was evaluated using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. It was found that the energy transfer between the base pairs in the hairpin of double strands of DNA aptamer acts as a quencher for MCM@CS@Au fluorescence culminating in an "on/off" optical biosensor. On the other hand, the presence of pH-sensitive chitosan nanoparticles creates smart nanosystem to deliver more curcumin into the desired cells. Indeed, when the aptamer specifically binds to the MUC-1 receptor, its double strands separate under the low pH condition, leading to the drug release and the recovery of the fluorescence ("On" state). Based on the toxicity results, this nanosystem had more toxicity toward the MUC-1-positive tumor cells than MUC-1-negative cells, representing its selective targeting. Therefore, this nanosystem could be introduced as a smart anticancer nanotheranostic system for tracing particular biomarkers (MUC-1), non-invasive fluorescence imaging, and targeted curcumin delivery.

Modified Lipid Nanocapsules for Targeted Tanshinone IIA Delivery in Liver Fibrosis

Introduction

Liver fibrosis represents a serious global disease with no approved treatment. Tanshinone IIA (TSIIA) is a phytomedicine with documented activity in treating many hepatic disorders. TSIIA has been reported to have potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It can also induce apoptosis for activated hepatic stellate cells, and is thereby considered as a promising herbal remedy for treating fibrotic liver. However, its poor aqueous solubility, short half-life, exposure to the first-pass effect, and low concentration reaching targeted cells constitute the major barriers hindering its effective therapeutic potential. Therefore, this work aimed at enhancing TSIIA systemic bioavailability together with achieving active targeting potential to fibrotic liver via its incorporation into novel modified lipid nanocapsules (LNCs).

Methods

Blank and TSIIA-loaded LNCs modified with either hyaluronate sodium or phosphatidyl serine were successfully prepared, optimized, and characterized both in vitro and in vivo.

Results

The developed LNCs showed good colloidal properties (size ≤100 nm and PDI ≤0.2), high drug-entrapment efficiency (>97%) with sustained-release profile for 24 hours, high storage stability up to 6 months, and good in vitro serum stability. After a single intraperitoneal injection, the administered LNCs exhibited a 2.4-fold significant increase in AUC_0–∞ compared with the TSIIA suspension (p≤0.01). Biodistribution-study results proved the liver-targeting ability of the prepared modified LNCs, with a significant ~1.5-fold increase in hepatic accumulation compared with the unmodified formulation (p≤0.05). Moreover, the modified formulations had an improved antifibrotic effect compared with both unmodified LNCs and TSIIA suspension, as evidenced by the results of biochemical and histopathological evaluation.

Conclusion

The modified TSIIA-LNCs could be regarded as promising novel targeted nanomedicines for effective management of liver fibrosis.

Stability, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution in mice of the EPAC1 inhibitor (R)-CE3F4 entrapped in liposomes and lipid nanocapsules

(R)-CE3F4, a specific inhibitor of EPAC1 (exchange protein directly activated by cAMP type 1), has been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo to reduce hypertrophic signaling contributing to heart failure or to control arrhythmia and has shown promise as a drug candidate. However, (R)-CE3F4 exhibits poor solubility in aqueous media and has shown sensitivity to enzyme hydrolysis in plasma. To overcome these issues, the drug was entrapped in liposomes and lipid nanocapsules. Both systems considerably increased the drug apparent solubility in aqueous media. Among these nanocarriers, lipid nanocapsules offered significant protection in vitro against enzymatic degradation by increasing the (R)-CE3F4 apparent half-life from around 40 min to 6 h. Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of (R)-CE3F4 radiolabeled or not were studied in healthy C57BL/6 mice. The non-encapsulated ³H-CE3F4 showed a very rapid distribution outside the blood compartment. Similar results were observed when using nanocarriers together with a fast dissociation of ³H-CE3F4 from nanocapsules simultaneously labeled with ¹⁴C. Thus, essential preclinical information on CE3F4 fate has been obtained, as well as the impact of its formulation using lipid-based nanocarriers.

Emerging Application of Nanorobotics and Artificial Intelligence To Cross the BBB: Advances in Design, Controlled Maneuvering, and Targeting of the Barriers

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a prime focus for clinicians to maintain the homeostatic function in health and deliver the theranostics in brain cancer and number of neurological diseases. The structural hierarchy and in situ biochemical signaling of BBB neurovascular unit have been primary targets to recapitulate into the in vitro modules. The microengineered perfusion systems and development in 3D cellular and organoid culture have given a major thrust to BBB research for neuropharmacology. In this review, we focus on revisiting the nanoparticles based bimolecular engineering to enable them to maneuver, control, target, and deliver the theranostic payloads across cellular BBB as nanorobots or nanobots. Subsequently we provide a brief outline of specific case studies addressing the payload delivery in brain tumor and neurological disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, etc.). In addition, we also address the opportunities and challenges across the nanorobots' development and design. Finally, we address how computationally powered machine learning (ML) tools and artificial intelligence (AI) can be partnered with robotics to predict and design the next generation nanorobots to interact and deliver across the BBB without causing damage, toxicity, or malfunctions. The content of this review could be references to multidisciplinary science to clinicians, roboticists, chemists, and bioengineers involved in cutting-edge pharmaceutical design and BBB research.

Lipid nanocapsules co-encapsulating paclitaxel and salinomycin for eradicating breast cancer and cancer stem cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) comprise a diminutive population of the tumor but pose major obstacles in cancer treatment, often their presence being correlated with poor prognosis, therapeutic resistance and relapse. Nanocarriers of combined drugs regimes demonstrate improved pharmacokinetics and decreased systemic toxicity by targeting the bulk tumor cells along with CSCs, holding the key to future successful chemotherapy. Herein, we developed lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) with co-encapsulated paclitaxel (PTX) and salinomycin (SAL) to eliminate breast cancer cells (MCF-7; non-bCSCs) and cancer stem cells (bCSCs) respectively. LNCs loaded with either PTX or SAL alone or in combination were fabricated by the phase inversion temperature (PIT) method. Physicochemical properties such as nano-size (90 ± 5 nm) and spherical morphology of LNCs were confirmed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) respectively. More than 98 % encapsulation efficiency of drug, alone or in combination, and their controlled drug release was obtained. Drug loaded LNCs were efficiently internalized and exhibited cytotoxicity in non-bCSCs and bCSCs, with dual drug loaded LNCs offering superior cytotoxicity and anti-bCSCs property. Drug loaded nanocapsules induced apoptosis in bCSCs, potentiated with the co-delivery of paclitaxel and salinomycin. Synergistic cytotoxic effect on both cells, non-bCSCs and bCSCs and effective reduction of the tumor mammospheres growth by co-encapsulated paclitaxel and salinomycin suggest LNCs to be promising for treatment of breast cancer.

Characterization of Biological Material Adsorption to the Surface of Nanoparticles without a Prior Separation Step: a Case Study of Glioblastoma-Targeting Peptide and Lipid Nanocapsules

Purpose

Current preclinical therapeutic strategies involving nanomedicine require increasingly sophisticated nanosystems and the characterization of the complexity of such nanoassemblies is becoming a major issue. Accurate characterization is often the factor that can accelerate the translational approaches of nanomedicines and their pharmaceutical development to reach the clinic faster. We conducted a case study involving the adsorption of the NFL-TBS.40–63 (NFL) peptide (derived from neurofilaments) to the surface of lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) (a combined nanosystem used to target glioblastoma cells) to develop an analytical approach combining the separation and the quantification in a single step, leading to the characterization of the proportion of free peptide and thus the proportion of peptide adsorbed to the lipid nanocapsule surface.

Methods

LNC suspensions, NFL peptide solution and LNC/NFL peptide mixtures were characterized using a Size-Exclusion Chromatography method (with a chromatographic apparatus). In addition, this method was compared to centrifugal-filtration devices, currently used in literature for this case study.

Results

Combining the steps for separation and characterization in one single sequence improved the accuracy and robustness of the data and led to reproducible results. Moreover the data deviation observed for the centrifugal-filtration devices demonstrated the limits for this increasingly used characterization approach, explained by the poor separation quality and highlighting the importance for the method optimization. The high potential of the technique was shown, proving that H-bond and/or electrostatic interactions mediate adsorption of the NFL peptide to the surface of LNCs.

Conclusions

Used only as a characterization tool, the process using chromatographic apparatus is less time and solvent consuming than classical Size-Exclusion Chromatography columns only used for separation. It could be a promising tool for the scientific community for characterizing the interactions of other combinations of nanosystems and active biological agents.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11095-021-03034-8.

Nanocomposite sponges for enhancing intestinal residence time following oral administration

In this work, nanocomposites that combine mucopenetrating and mucoadhesive properties in a single system are proposed as innovative strategy to increase drug residence time in the intestine following oral administration. To this aim, novel mucoadhesive chitosan (CH) sponges loaded with mucopenetrating nanoemulsions (NE) were developed via freeze-casting technique. The NE mucopenetration ability was determined studying the surface affinity and thermodynamic binding of the nanosystem with mucins. The ability of nanoparticles to penetrate across a preformed mucins layer was validated by 3D-time laps Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy imaging. Microscopy observations (Scanning Electron Microscopy and Optical Microscopy) showed that NE participated in the structure of the sponge affecting its stability and in vitro release kinetics. When incubated with HCT 116 and Caco-2 cell lines, the NE proved to be cytocompatible over a wide concentration range. Finally, the in vivo biodistribution of the nanocomposite was evaluated after oral gavage in healthy mice. The intestinal retention of NE was highly enhanced when loaded in the sponge compared to the NE suspension. Overall, our results demonstrated that the developed nanocomposite sponge is a promising system for sustained drug intestinal delivery.

Revealing Changes in Curcumin Bioavailability using Vitamin C as an Enhancer by HPLC-MS/MS

Background:

Curcumin (CUR), a natural isolated compound from turmeric, helps in fighting many diseases, but the broad application of curcumin has been limited ascribed to low bioavailability.

Objective:

The aim of this study is to pursue the enhancement of curcumin bioavailability through coadministration of vitamin C.

Methods:

Such purpose was achieved through the analysis of curcumin pharmacokinetics by highperformance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization - tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC - ESI - MS/MS). The plasma was separated on a C18 reverse-phase column using acetonitrile and ammonium formate solution (pH 6.5; 2.0 mM) at 0.8 mL/min. MS/MS detection was carried out in negative mode using mass patterns of m/z 367.0 > 216.7 for curcumin and m/z 265.2 > 223.9 for internal standard (honokiol).

Results:

Successful application of the proposed method in the pharmacokinetic study presented clear changes in key pharmacokinetic parameters, including the growth of AUC (0-t) up to 2.4 times, a 2.2- fold increase of Cmax, 2.2-fold loss of CL, and 1.5-fold diminishment of t1/2.

Conclusion:

An HPLC-ESI-MS/MS method for the determination of curcumin in rat plasma and validated the improvement of bioavailability of curcumin through co-administration of vitamin C was determined. These changes were reasoned to the inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced by the use of vitamin C. Such a simple strategy is possible to become an alternative for enhancing curcumin efficiency in practice.

Mechanism of cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of paclitaxel loaded lipid nanocapsules in breast cancer cells

Lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) have proven their efficacy in delivering different drugs to various cancers, but no studies have yet described their uptake mechanisms, paclitaxel (PTX) delivery or resulting cytotoxicity towards breast cancer cells. Herein, we report results concerning cellular uptake of LNCs and cytotoxicity studies of PTX-loaded LNCs (LNCs-PTX) on the three breast cancer cell lines MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468. LNCs-PTX of sizes 50 ± 2 nm, 90 ± 3 nm and 120 ± 4 nm were developed by the phase inversion method. Fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry were used to observe the uptake of fluorescently labeled LNCs and cellular uptake of LNCs-PTX was measured using HPLC analyses of cell samples. These studies revealed a higher uptake of LNCs-PTX in MDA-MB-468 cells than in the other two cell lines. Moreover, free PTX and LNCs-PTX exhibited a similar pattern of toxicity towards each cell line, but MDA-MB-468 cells appeared to be more sensitive than the other two cell lines, as evaluated by the MTT cytotoxicity assay and a cell proliferation assay based upon [³H]thymidine incorporation. Studies with inhibitors of endocytosis indicate that the cellular uptake is mainly via the Cdc42/GRAF-dependent endocytosis as well as by macropinocytosis, whereas dynamin-dependent processes are not required. Furthermore, our results indicate that endocytosis of LNCs-PTX is important for the toxic effect on cells. Western blot analysis revealed that LNCs-PTX induce cytotoxicity by means of apoptosis in all the three cell lines. Altogether, the results demonstrate that LNCs-PTX exploit different mechanisms of endocytosis in a cell-type dependent manner, and subsequently induce apoptotic cell death in the breast cancer cells here studied. The article also describes biodistribution studies following intravenous injection of fluorescently labeled LNCs in mice.

Carboxymethyl chitosan microspheres loaded hyaluronic acid/gelatin hydrogels for controlled drug delivery and the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

A major drawback of oral treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is the non-specific distribution of drugs during long-term treatment. Despite its effectiveness as an anti-inflammatory drug, curcumin (CUR) is limited by its low bioavailability in IBD treatment. Herein, a pH-sensitive composite hyaluronic acid/gelatin (HA/GE) hydrogel drug delivery system containing carboxymethyl chitosan (CC) microspheres loaded with CUR was fabricated for IBD treatment. The composition and structure of the composite system were optimized and the physicochemical properties were characterized using infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, swelling, and release behavior studies. In vitro, the formulation exhibited good sustained release property and the drug release rate was 65% for 50 h. In vivo pharmacokinetic experiments indicated that high level of CUR was maintained in the colon tissue for more than 24 h; it also played an anti-inflammatory role by evaluating the histopathological changes through hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and immunofluorescent staining. Additionally, the formulation substantially inhibited the level of the main pro-inflammatory cytokines of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) secreted by macrophages, compared to the control group. The pharmacodynamic experiment showed that the formulation group of CUR@gels had the best therapeutic effect on colitis in mice. The composite gel delivery system has potential for the effective delivery of CUR in the treatment of colitis. This study also provides a reference for the design and preparation of a new oral drug delivery system with controlled release behavior.

Design of Pegylated-Nanocapsules to Diphenyl Diselenide Administration: In Vitro Evidence of Hemocompatible and Selective Antiglioma Formulation

Diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)₂] is a pleiotropic pharmacological agent, but it has low aqueous solubility. The nanoencapsulation of (PhSe)₂ allowed the preparation of an aqueous formulation as well as potentiated its in vitro antitumor effect and the effectiveness in a preclinical model of glioblastoma when administered by the intragastric route. Thus, aiming at maximizing the therapeutic potential of (PhSe)₂, the present study designed a pegylated-formulation intending to intravenous administration of the (PhSe)₂ as a new approach for glioma therapy. The poly(Ɛ-caprolactone) nanocapsules containing (PhSe)₂ were physically coated with polyethyleneglycol (PEG) using the preformed polymer interfacial deposition technique and evaluated through physicochemical, morphological, spectroscopic, and thermal characteristics. Hemocompatibility was determined by the in vitro hemolysis test and cytotoxicity assays were performed in astrocytes and glioma C6 cells (10-100 μM). The pegylated-nanocapsules had an average diameter of 218 ± 25 nm, polydispersity index of 0.164 ± 0.046, zeta potential of - 8.1 ± 1.6 mV, pH 6.0 ± 0.09, (PhSe)₂ content of 102.00 ± 3.57%, and encapsulation efficiency around 98%. Besides, the (PhSe)₂ pegylated-nanocapsules were spherical, presented absence of chemical interaction among the constituents, and showed higher thermal stability than the non-encapsulated materials. PEG-coated nanocapsules did not cause hemolytic effect while formulations without PEG induced a hemolysis rate above 10%. Moreover, pegylated-nanocapsules had superior in vitro antiglioma effect in comparison to free compound (IC₅₀: 24.10 μM and 74.83 μM, respectively). Therefore, the (PhSe)₂-loaded pegylated-nanocapsule suspensions can be considered a hemocompatible formulation for the glioma treatment by the intravenous route.

Lipid-based Nanoplatforms in Cancer Therapy: Recent Advances and Applications

Though modern available cancer therapies are effective, they possess major adverse effects, causing non-compliance to patients. Furthermore, the majority of the polymeric-based medication platforms are certainly not universally acceptable, due to their several restrictions. With this juxtaposition, lipid-based medication delivery systems have appeared as promising drug nanocarriers to replace the majority of the polymer-based products because they are in a position to reverse polymer as well as, drug-associated restrictions. Furthermore, the amalgamation of the basic principle of nanotechnology in designing lipid nanocarriers, which are the latest form of lipid carriers, has tremendous chemotherapeutic possibilities as tumor-targeted drug-delivery pertaining to tumor therapy. Apart from this, it is reported that nearly 40% of the modern medication entities are lipophilic. Moreover, research continues to be efficient in attaining a significant understanding of the absorption and bioavailability of the developed lipids systems.

Therapeutic benefits of rutin and its nanoformulations

BACKGROUND

Rutin as a natural flavonoid compound has revealed an extensive range of therapeutic potentials.

PURPOSE

The current paper is focused on the numerous studies on rutin nanoformulations regarding its broad spectrum of therapeutic potentials.

STUDY AND METHODS

A review was conducted in electronic databases (PubMed) to identify relevant published literature in English. No restrictions on publication date were imposed.

RESULTS

The literature search provided 7,078 results for rutin. Among them, 25 papers were related to the potential biological activities of rutin nanoformulations. Polymeric nanoparticles were the most studied nanoformulations for rutin (14 titles) and lipid nanoparticles (5 titles) were in second place. The reviewed literature showed that rutin has been used as an antimicrobial, antifungal, and anti-allergic agent. Improving the bioavailability of rutin using novel drug-delivery methods will help the investigators to use its useful effects in the treatment of various chronic human diseases.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that the preparation of rutin nanomaterials for the various therapeutic objects confirmed the enhanced aqueous solubility as well as enhanced efficacy compared to conventional delivery of rutin. However, more investigations should be conducted to confirm the improved bioavailability of the rutin nanoformulations.

pH-Triggered Drug Release Controlled by Poly(Styrene Sulfonate) Growth Hollow Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles

In the current report, hollow mesoporous silica (HMS) nanoparticles were successfully prepared by means of a hard-templating method and further modified with poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) via radical polymerization. Structural analysis, surface spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric characterization confirmed a successful surface modification of HMS nanoparticles. A hairy PSS was clearly visualized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy measurement, and it is grown on the surface of HMS nanoparticles. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area and average pore size of HMS nanoparticles were reduced after surface modification because of the pore-blocking effect, which indicated that the PSS lies on the surface of nanoparticles. Nevertheless, the PSS acts as a "nano-gate" to control the release of curcumin which is triggered by pH. The drug-release profile of unmodified HMS nanoparticles showed a stormed release in both pH 7.4 and 5.0 of phosphate buffer saline buffer solution. However, a slow release (9.92% of cumulative release) of curcumin was observed at pH 7.4 when the surface of HMS nanoparticles was modified by PSS. The kinetic release study showed that the curcumin release mechanism from PSS@HMS nanoparticles followed the Ritger-Peppas kinetic model, which is the non-Fickian diffusion. Therefore, the PSS-decorated HMS nanoparticles demonstrate potential for pH-triggered drug release transport.

Lipid Nanoparticles and Active Natural Compounds: A Perfect Combination for Pharmaceutical Applications

Phytochemicals represent an important class of bioactive compounds characterized by significant health benefits. Notwithstanding these important features, their potential therapeutic properties suffer from poor water solubility and membrane permeability limiting their approach to nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Lipid nanoparticles are well known carrier systems endowed with high biodegradation and an extraordinary biocompatible chemical nature, successfully used as platform for advanced delivery of many active compounds, including the oral, topical and systemic routes. This article is aimed at reviewing the last ten years of studies about the application of lipid nanoparticles in active natural compounds reporting examples and advantages of these colloidal carrier systems.

Antitumor action of diphenyl diselenide nanocapsules: In vitro assessments and preclinical evidence in an animal model of glioblastoma multiforme

BACKGROUND

Gliomas are the most aggressive malignant tumors of the central nervous system. The diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)₂] is an organoselenium compound that has multiple pharmacological properties. Previous reports showed that (PhSe)₂ nanoencapsulation potentiates its in vitro antitumoral action and reduces its toxicity.

OBJECTIVE

In this sense, the current study was designed to further evaluate the (PhSe)₂ antitumoral effect by a set of in vitro techniques using a glioma cell line as well as by an animal model of gliobastoma.

METHODS

For the in vitro tests, the cell viability, propidium iodide uptake and nitrite levels of rat glioma C6 cells were determined after incubation with free (PhSe)₂ or (PhSe)₂-loaded nanocapsules (NC). The glioblastoma model was induced by implantation of C6 glioma cells in the right striatum of rats. Following, animals were submitted to a repeated intragastric administration treatment with (PhSe)₂ or NC (PhSe)₂ (1 mg/kg/day for 15 days) to assess the possible antitumor effect.

MAIN FINDINGS

Both compound forms decreased the C6 glioma cells viability without causing any effect in astrocytes cells (healthy control). Importantly, the NC (PhSe)₂ had superior cytotoxic effect than its free form and increased the nitrite content. Independent of the (PhSe)₂ forms, the intragastric treatment reduced brain tumor size and caused neither alteration in the plasma renal and hepatic markers of function nor in the parameters of oxidative balance in brain, liver and kidneys.

PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS

The (PhSe)₂ nanoencapsulation improved its cytotoxic effect against C6 glioma cells and both compound forms attenuated the tumor development.

Pharmacokinetic studies of nanoparticles as a delivery system for conventional drugs and herb-derived compounds for cancer therapy: a systematic review

The poor pharmacokinetic characteristics of most anticancer drugs have limited their clinical effectiveness. The application of nanoparticles as a novel drug delivery system has provided opportunities to tackle the current challenges facing conventional drug delivery systems such as poor pharmacokinetics, lack of specificity to tumor cells, multidrug resistance, and toxicity. This systematic review aims to examine the application of pharmacokinetic studies of nanoparticles loaded in conventional drugs and herb-derived compounds for cancer therapy. The pharmacokinetic parameters of several herbal medicines and chemotherapeutic drugs loaded into nanoparticles were reported. This included area under the curve (AUC) of plasma concentration-time profile, maximum plasma concentration (C_max), time to maximum plasma concentration (T_max), volume of distribution (V_d or V_ss), elimination half-life (t_½), and clearance (CL). The systematic review was conducted using information available in the PubMed and Science Direct databases up to February 2019. The search terms employed were: pharmacokinetics, pharmacokinetic study, nanoparticles, anticancer, traditional medicine, herbal medicine, herb-derived compounds, natural products, and chemotherapy. Overall, nanoparticle carriers not only significantly improved pharmacokinetics but also further enhanced permeability, solubility, stability, specificity, and selectivity of the carried anticancer drugs/herb-derived compounds to target tumor cells. Additionally, they also limited hepatic first-pass metabolism and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux of the carried anticancer drugs/herb-derived compounds. Based on this systematic review, polymeric nanoparticles were the most commonly used nanocarrier to improve the pharmacokinetic parameters. The use of nanoparticles as a novel drug delivery system has the potential to improve both pharmacokinetics and cytotoxicity activity of the loaded drugs/herb-derived compounds for cancer therapy.