Inactivation of common hospital acquired pathogens on surfaces and in air utilizing engineered water nanostructures (EWNS) based nano-sanitizers

Dual-drug (Curcumin/Ciprofloxacin) loading and release from chitosan-based hydrogels embedded with magnetic Montmorillonite/Hyaluronic acid for enhancing wound healing

Montmorillonite (MMt) is extensively applied as an efficient drug-carrier in designing drug delivery systems (DDS) due to its high specific surface area to load drugs. Modification of MMt via iron (Fe) blending can thus be a desirable method to improve its biocompatibility. Herein, magnetic nano-carriers involving the magnetic MMt (mMMt) core surrounded by chitosan (Chito) as a biopolymer and hyaluronic acid (HA) were prepared. To coat the mMMt fabricated through the coprecipitation of the Fe3+/Fe2+ ions in the presence of MMt, the acquired mMMt as the core was then treated with the Chito/HA solution to induce the cross-linked Chito/HA as the shell (namely, the Chito/HA-mMMt). The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) results accordingly revealed the existence of the mMMt inside the Chito/HA solution. Curcumin (CUR) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) were further employed as two model drugs. The CUR and CIP release from the Chito/HA-mMMt subsequently occurred in a sustained manner and pH-dependently. Additionally, an upsurge in the CUR and CIP release by applying an external magnetic field was observed. Thus, the prepared Chito/HA-mMMt hydrogels promise an outstanding potential performance in terms of expanding novel pH-dependent DDS with a sustained release behavior. The scratch assay of the given hydrogels also confirms their applications for wound healing.

The relevant information about the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) using the five-question approach (when, where, what, why, and how) and its impact on the environment

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is regarded as a threat because it spreads quickly across the world without requiring a passport or establishing an identity. This tiny virus has wreaked havoc on people's lives, killed people, and created psychological problems all over the world. The viral spike protein (S) significantly contributes to host cell entry, and mutations associated with it, particularly in the receptor-binding protein (RBD), either facilitate the escape of virus from neutralizing antibodies or enhance its transmission by increasing the affinity for cell entry receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The initial variants identified in Brazil, South Africa, and the UK have spread to various countries. On the other hand, new variants are being detected in India and the USA. The viral genome and proteome were applied for molecular detection techniques, and nanotechnology particles and materials were utilized in protection and prevention strategies. Consequently, the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has resulted in extraordinary scientific community efforts to develop detection methods, diagnosis tools, and effective antiviral drugs and vaccines, where prevailing academic, governmental, and industrial institutions and organizations continue to engage themselves in large-scale screening of existing drugs, both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, COVID-19 pointed on the possible solutions for the environmental pollution globe problem. Therefore, this review aims to address SARS-CoV-2, its transmission, where it can be found, why it is severe in some people, how it can be stopped, its diagnosis and detection techniques, and its relationship with the environment.

Graphene oxide exposure alters gut microbial community composition and metabolism in an in vitro human model

Graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterials have unique physicochemical properties that make them highly promising for biomedical, environmental, and agricultural applications. There is growing interest in the use of GO and extensive in vitro and in vivo studies have been conducted to assess its nanotoxicity. Although it is known that GO can alter the composition of the gut microbiota in mice and zebrafish, studies on the potential impacts of GO on the human gut microbiome are largely lacking. This study addresses an important knowledge gap by investigating the impact of GO exposure- at low (25 mg/L) and high (250 mg/L) doses under both fed (nutrient rich) and fasted (nutrient deplete) conditions- on the gut microbial communitys' structure and function, using an in vitro model. This model includes simulated oral, gastric, small intestinal phase digestion of GO followed by incubation in a colon bioreactor. 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing revealed that GO exposure resulted in a restructuring of community composition. 25 mg/L GO induced a marked decrease in the Bacteroidota phylum and increased the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidota (F/B). Untargeted metabolomics on the supernatants indicated that 25 mg/L GO impaired microbial utilization and metabolism of substrates (amino acids, carbohydrate metabolites) and reduced production of beneficial microbial metabolites such as 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid and GABA. Exposure to 250 mg/L GO resulted in community composition and metabolome profiles that were very similar to the controls that lacked both GO and digestive enzymes. Differential abundance analyses revealed that 3 genera from the phylum Bacteroidota (Bacteroides, Dysgonomonas, and Parabacteroides) were more abundant after 250 mg/L GO exposure, irrespective of feed state. Integrative correlation network analysis indicated that the phylum Bacteroidota showed strong positive correlations to multiple microbial metabolites including GABA and 3-indoleacetic acid, are much larger number of correlations compared to other phyla. These results show that GO exposure has a significant impact on gut microbial community composition and metabolism at both low and high GO concentrations.

Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 surrogate inactivation on surfaces and in air using UV and blue light-based intervention technologies

The COVID-19 pandemic has created an urgent need to utilize existing and develop new intervention technologies for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation on surfaces and in the air. Ultraviolet (UV) technology has been shown to be an effective antimicrobial intervention. Here a study was conducted to determine the efficacy of commercially available UV and blue light-based devices for inactivating HCoV-229E, a surrogate of SARS-CoV-2. The results indicate that two UV devices designed for surface disinfection, with doses of 8.07 µJ/cm² for the 254 nm device and 20.61 µJ/cm² for the 275 nm device, were efficient in inactivating 4.94 logs of surface inoculated HCoV-229E. Additionally, a 222 nm UV device with intended ceiling-based operation was effective in inactivating 1.7 logs of the virus inoculated on surface, with a dose of 6 mJ/cm². A ceiling-based device designed to emit blue light at 405 nm was found to produce 89% reduction in HCoV-229E inoculated on a surface for a dose of 78 J/cm². Finally, the UV based 222 nm device was found to produce a 90% reduction in the concentration of airborne HCoV-229E, at a 55 µJ/cm² dose. These results are indicative of the great potential of using UV based technology for the control of SARS-CoV-2.Implications: An important avenue of arresting COVID-19 and future pandemics caused by infectious pathogens is through environmental disinfection. To this effect, the study presented here evaluates commercially available UV and blue light based antimicrobial devices for their ability to kill the human coronavirus HCoV-229E, a surrogate of SARS-CoV-2, on surfaces and in air. The results indicate that two handheld UV devices produced complete inactivation of surface viral inoculum and a UVC ceiling based device produced 1 log reduction in HCoV-229E in air. These results imply the efficacy of UV technology as an antimicrobial tool, especially for rapid disinfection of indoor air.

State-of-art high-performance Nano-systems for mutated coronavirus infection management: From Lab to Clinic

The emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants made emerging novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) pandemic/endemic/or both more severe and difficult to manage due to increased worry about the efficacy and efficiency of present preventative, therapeutic, and sensing measures. To deal with these unexpected circumstances, the development of novel nano-systems with tuneable optical, electrical, magnetic, and morphological properties can lead to novel research needed for (1) COVID-19 infection (anti-microbial systems against SARS-CoV-2), (2) early detection of mutated SARS-CoV-2, and (3) targeted delivery of therapeutics using nano-systems, i.e., nanomedicine. However, there is a knowledge gap in understanding all these nano-biotechnology potentials for managing mutated SARS-CoV-2 on a single platform. To bring up the aspects of nanotechnology to tackle SARS-CoV-2 variants related COVID-19 pandemic, this article emphasizes improvements in the high-performance of nano-systems to combat SARS-CoV-2 strains/variants with a goal of managing COVID-19 infection via trapping, eradication, detection/sensing, and treatment of virus. The potential of state-of-the-art nano-assisted approaches has been demonstrated as an efficient drug delivery systems, viral disinfectants, vaccine productive cargos, anti-viral activity, and biosensors suitable for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. Furthermore, the process linked with the efficacy of nanosystems to neutralize and eliminate SARS-CoV-2 is extensively highligthed in this report. The challenges and opportunities associated with managing COVID-19 using nanotechnology as part of regulations are also well-covered. The outcomes of this review will help researchers to design, investigate, and develop an appropriate nano system to manage COVID-19 infection, with a focus on the detection and eradication of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. This article is unique in that it discusses every aspect of high-performance nanotechnology for ideal COVID pandemic management.

Using engineered water nanostructures (EWNS) for wound disinfection: Case study of Acinetobacter baumannii inactivation on skin and the inhibition of biofilm formation

Engineered water nanostructures (EWNS) were utilized to deliver a cocktail of nature derived antimicrobials, to assess their efficacy as a solution to the problem of wound infections. The wound related microorganism Acinetobacter baumannii was inoculated on stainless steel and porcine skin and treated with EWNS. EWNS were able to reduce A. baumannii on stainless steel by 4.79 logs in 15 min, and 2 logs in 30 min on porcine skin. The EWNS were able to reduce the strength of A. baumannii biofilm on stainless steel by 87.31% as measured with the XTT assay (P < .001) and 86.27% in cellular counts (P < .001), after two EWNS interventions of 30 min each. Total antimicrobial dose delivered to the surface was 1.42 ng. SEM of biofilms after EWNS treatment showed reduced biomass. These results indicate that the EWNS technology has potential for application in field of wound disinfection and healing.

Inactivating SARS-CoV-2 Surrogates on Surfaces Using Engineered Water Nanostructures Incorporated with Nature Derived Antimicrobials

The continuing cases of COVID-19 due to emerging strains of the SARS-CoV-2 virus underscore the urgent need to develop effective antiviral technologies. A crucial aspect of reducing transmission of the virus is through environmental disinfection. To this end, a nanotechnology-based antimicrobial platform utilizing engineered water nanostructures (EWNS) was utilized to challenge the human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), a surrogate of SARS-CoV-2, on surfaces. The EWNS were synthesized using electrospray and ionization of aqueous solutions of antimicrobials, had a size in the nanoscale, and contained both antimicrobial agents and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Various EWNS were synthesized using single active ingredients (AI) as well as their combinations. The results of EWNS treatment indicate that EWNS produced with a cocktail of hydrogen peroxide, citric acid, lysozyme, nisin, and triethylene glycol was able to inactivate 3.8 logs of HCoV-229E, in 30 s of treatment. The delivered dose of antimicrobials to the surface was measured to be in pico to nanograms. These results indicate the efficacy of EWNS technology as a nano-carrier for delivering a minuscule dose while inactivating HCoV-229E, making this an attractive technology against SARS-CoV-2.

Nanotechnology Role Development for COVID-19 Pandemic Management

The global outbreak of coronavirus disease has sent an ominous message to the field of innovative and advanced technology research and development (COVID-19). To accomplish this, convectional technology and recent discoveries can be combined, or new research directions can be opened up using nanotechnology. Nanotechnology can be used to prevent, diagnose, and treat SARS-CoV-2 infection. As the pandemic spreads, a thorough examination of nanomaterials' role in pandemic response is highly desirable. According to this comprehensive review article, nanotechnology can be used to prevent, diagnose, and treat COVID-19. This research will be extremely useful during the COVID-19 outbreak in terms of developing rules for designing nanostructure materials to combat the outbreak.

Nanoprotection from SARS-COV-2: would nanotechnology help in Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) to control the transmission of COVID-19?

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a worldwide outbreak. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus can be transmitted human-to-human through droplets and close contact where personal protective equipment (PPE) is imperative to protect the individuals. The advancement of nanotechnology with significant nanosized properties can confer a higher form of protection. Incorporation of nanotechnology into facemasks can exhibit antiviral properties. Nanocoating on surfaces can achieve self-disinfecting purposes and be applied in highly populated places. Moreover, nano-based hand sanitizers can confer better sterilizing efficacies with low skin irritation as compared to alcohol-based hand sanitizers. The present review discusses the incorporation of nanotechnology into nano-based materials and coatings in facemasks, self-surface disinfectants and hand sanitizers, in the hope to contribute to the current understanding of PPE to combat COVID-19.

COVID-19: A systematic review and update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment

Since the rapid onset of the COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in the world in 2019, extensive studies have been conducted to unveil the behavior and emission pattern of the virus in order to determine the best ways to diagnosis of virus and thereof formulate effective drugs or vaccines to combat the disease. The emergence of novel diagnostic and therapeutic techniques considering the multiplicity of reports from one side and contradictions in assessments from the other side necessitates instantaneous updates on the progress of clinical investigations. There is also growing public anxiety from time to time mutation of COVID-19, as reflected in considerable mortality and transmission, respectively, from delta and Omicron variants. We comprehensively review and summarize different aspects of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19. First, biological characteristics of COVID-19 were explained from diagnosis standpoint. Thereafter, the preclinical animal models of COVID-19 were discussed to frame the symptoms and clinical effects of COVID-19 from patient to patient with treatment strategies and in-silico/computational biology. Finally, the opportunities and challenges of nanoscience/nanotechnology in identification, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19 were discussed. This review covers almost all SARS-CoV-2-related topics extensively to deepen the understanding of the latest achievements (last updated on January 11, 2022).

Anti-COVID-19 Nanomaterials: Directions to Improve Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Following the announcement of the outbreak of COVID-19 by the World Health Organization, unprecedented efforts were made by researchers around the world to combat the disease. So far, various methods have been developed to combat this "virus" nano enemy, in close collaboration with the clinical and scientific communities. Nanotechnology based on modifiable engineering materials and useful physicochemical properties has demonstrated several methods in the fight against SARS-CoV-2. Here, based on what has been clarified so far from the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2, through an interdisciplinary perspective based on computational science, engineering, pharmacology, medicine, biology, and virology, the role of nano-tools in the trio of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment is highlighted. The special properties of different nanomaterials have led to their widespread use in the development of personal protective equipment, anti-viral nano-coats, and disinfectants in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 out-body. The development of nano-based vaccines acts as a strong shield in-body. In addition, fast detection with high efficiency of SARS-CoV-2 by nanomaterial-based point-of-care devices is another nanotechnology capability. Finally, nanotechnology can play an effective role as an agents carrier, such as agents for blocking angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors, gene editing agents, and therapeutic agents. As a general conclusion, it can be said that nanoparticles can be widely used in disinfection applications outside in vivo. However, in in vivo applications, although it has provided promising results, it still needs to be evaluated for possible unintended immunotoxicity. Reviews like these can be important documents for future unwanted pandemics.

Contact transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on fomite surfaces: surface survival and risk reduction

There is an unprecedented concern regarding the viral strain SARS-CoV-2 and especially its respiratory disease more commonly known as COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 virus has the ability to survive on different surfaces for extended periods, ranging from days up to months. The new infectious properties of SARS-CoV-2 vary depending on the properties of fomite surfaces. In this review, we summarize the risk factors involved in the indirect transmission pathways of SARS-CoV-2 strains on fomite surfaces. The main mode of indirect transmission is the contamination of porous and non-porous inanimate surfaces such as textile surfaces that include clothes and most importantly personal protective equipment like personal protective equipment kits, masks, etc. In the second part of the review, we highlight materials and processes that can actively reduce the SARS-CoV-2 surface contamination pattern and the associated transmission routes. The review also focuses on some general methodologies for designing advanced and effective antiviral surfaces by physical and chemical modifications, viral inhibitors, etc.

A review of methods to reduce the probability of the airborne spread of COVID-19 in ventilation systems and enclosed spaces

COVID-19 forced the human population to rethink its way of living. The threat posed by the potential spread of the virus via an airborne transmission mode through ventilation systems in buildings and enclosed spaces has been recognized as a major concern. To mitigate this threat, researchers have explored different technologies and methods that can remove or decrease the concentration of the virus in ventilation systems and enclosed spaces. Although many technologies and methods have already been researched, some are currently available on the market, but their effectiveness and safety concerns have not been fully investigated. To acquire a broader view and collective perspective of the current research and development status, this paper discusses a comprehensive review of various workable technologies and methods to combat airborne viruses, e.g., COVID-19, in ventilation systems and enclosed spaces. These technologies and methods include an increase in ventilation, high-efficiency air filtration, ionization of the air, environmental condition control, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, non-thermal plasma and reactive oxygen species, filter coatings, chemical disinfectants, and heat inactivation. Research gaps have been identified and discussed, and recommendations for applying such technologies and methods have also been provided in this article.

Mechanisms underlying inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by nano-sized electrostatic atomized water particles

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a serious global issue. To prevent viral transmission, it is important to disinfect contaminated environmental surfaces and aerosols. We previously demonstrated that nano-sized electrostatic atomized water particles (NEAWPs) inactivate SARS-CoV-2. Herein, we focused on the underlying mechanisms. Morphological observation by transmission electron microscopy revealed that compared with NEAWPs-untreated virus, the shapes of particles corresponding to the size of SARS-CoV-2 particles were distorted significantly when exposed to NEAWPs. The amounts of viral RNA and protein in NEAWPs-treated SARS-CoV-2 showed a significantly greater decline than those in viruses unexposed to NEAWPs. Furthermore, much less NEAWPs-treated SARS-CoV-2 than NEAWPs-untreated virus bound to host cells. These results strongly suggest that NEAWPs damage the viral envelope, as well as viral protein and RNA, thereby impairing the ability of the virus to bind to host cells. Reactive oxygen species in NEAWPs may be involved in the inactivating effects on SARS-CoV-2.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11051-022-05485-5.

Antibacterial and antiviral high-performance nano-systems to mitigate new SARS-CoV-2 variants of concerns

The increased severity of COVID-19 infection due to new SARS-CoV-2 variants have resonated pandemic strategies to re-evaluate effectiveness of pandemic management strategies. This becomes critical due to the shortcomings in the existing global healthcare system in all the developed countries. The designing of high-performance nanosystems (NSs) with tunable performances seems to be the most efficient method to tackle infectious SARS-CoV-2 variants. The opinion projects the versatile functionalized NSs and their innovative potential to mitigate SARS-CoV-2 pathways by sensitization of virus, anti-pathogenicity, photocatalysis, photo-thermal, immune response, and development of ultrasensitive assays for SARS-CoV-2 or associated selective biomarkers identification. In this direction, we propose the fabrication of nano-enabled protective gears, masks, gloves, sheets, filtration units, nano-emulsified disinfectants, paints, and detection systems to facilitate improved quarantine or antiviral spaces. Functional protective gears can even tackle the aerosol distribution of infectious strains transmitted through respiratory fluids and pollutants within droplets, aerosols, air, and particulates.

Controlling pathogenic risks of water treatment biotechnologies at the source by genetic editing means

Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in the environment and wastewater treatment systems, many of which are also important pollutant degraders and are difficult to control by traditional disinfection approaches, have become an unprecedented treat to ecological security and human health. Here, we propose the adoption of genetic editing techniques as a highly targeted, efficient and simple tool to control the risks of environmental pathogens at the source. An 'all-in-one' plasmid system was constructed in Aeromonas hydrophila to accurately identify and selectively inactivate multiple key virulence factor genes and antibiotic resistance genes via base editing, enabling significantly suppressed bacterial virulence and resistance without impairing their normal phenotype and pollutant-degradation functions. Its safe application for bioaugmented treatment of synthetic textile wastewater was also demonstrated. This genetic-editing technique may offer a promising solution to control the health risks of environmental microorganisms via targeted gene inactivation, thereby facilitating safer application of water treatment biotechnologies.

Application of green synthesised copper iodide particles on cotton fabric-protective face mask material against COVID-19 pandemic

Microorganisms cause variety of diseases that constitutes a severe threat to mankind. Due to the upsurge of many infectious diseases, there is a high requirement and demand for the development of safety products finished with antimicrobial properties. The study involves the antimicrobial activity of natural cotton coated with copper iodide capped with Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. flower extract (CuI-FE) which is rich in anthocyanin, cyanidin-3-sophoroside by ultrasonication method. The coated and uncoated cotton fabric was characterised through XRD, SEM, AFM, tensile strength and UV-Visible spectroscopic techniques. XRD confirmed the formation of CuI particles, SEM showed that CuI-FE was prismatic in shape. The average size of CuI-FE particles was found to be 552.45 nm. Anti-bacterial studies showed copper iodide particles to be a potent antimicrobial agent. AFM images confirmed the rupture of bacterial cell walls in the presence of prismatic CuI-FE. In-vitro cytotoxicity investigation of CuI-FE was performed against cancer and spleen cell lines to evaluate the cell viability. Cytotoxicity analysis revealed the IC50 value of 233.93 μg/mL in the presence of CuI-FE. Molecular docking study was also carried out to understand the interaction of CuI-FE with COVID-19 main protease. This paper has given an insight on the usage of CuI-FE coated on the cotton fabric that has proved to have strong inhibition against the nano ranged bacterial, cancerous cell line and a strong interaction with the COVID-19 protease. Such eco-friendly material will provide a safe environment even after the disposable of medical waste from the infectious diseases like influenza and current pandemic like COVID-19.

Rapid growth in the COVID-19 era

ABSTRACT

From Operation Warp Speed to the lipid mRNA vaccine, the COVID-19 pandemic has been a watershed moment for technological development, production, and implementation. The scale and pace of innovation and global collaboration has likely not been experienced since World War II. This article highlights some of the engineering accomplishments that occurred during the pandemic. We provide a broad overview of the technological achievements in vaccine design, antibody engineering, drug repurposing, and rapid diagnostic testing. We also discuss what the future of these technologies and the future of large-scale collaborations might look like moving forward.

GRAPHIC ABSTRACT

Recent Progress in Nanotechnology for COVID-19 Prevention, Diagnostics and Treatment

The COVID-19 pandemic is currently an unprecedented public health threat. The rapid spread of infections has led to calls for alternative approaches to combat the virus. Nanotechnology is taking root against SARS-CoV-2 through prevention, diagnostics and treatment of infections. In light of the escalating demand for managing the pandemic, a comprehensive review that highlights the role of nanomaterials in the response to the pandemic is highly desirable. This review article comprehensively discusses the use of nanotechnology for COVID-19 based on three main categories: prevention, diagnostics and treatment. We first highlight the use of various nanomaterials including metal nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles and magnetic nanoparticles for COVID-19. We critically review the benefits of nanomaterials along with their applications in personal protective equipment, vaccine development, diagnostic device fabrication and therapeutic approaches. The remaining key challenges and future directions of nanomaterials for COVID-19 are briefly discussed. This review is very informative and helpful in providing guidance for developing nanomaterial-based products to fight against COVID-19.

Innovative Nanotechnology a Boon for Fight Against Pandemic COVID–19

COVID – 19 is a contagious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV2). The rate at which COVID – 19-virus spread from epidemic to pandemic within a short period is quite alarming. As of July 2020, the Dashboard of the World Health Organization (WHO) recorded over 15 million COVID – 19 cases across 213 countries, with mortality of over 620,000. The governments and healthcare agencies responsible for mitigating the virus's spread have adopted several strategies to end the pandemic. However, all hands were on deck to establish the standard treatment modalities of SARS-CoV-2 through inventing new drugs, vaccine candidates, or repurposing the existing medicines and robust diagnostic tools, in addition to other technological innovations. Therefore, nanotechnology’s employment would play a vital role in bringing multidisciplinary ways of developing affordable, reliable, and powerful tools for diagnosis, in addition to personal protection and effective medicines. Additionally, nanosensors' application would significantly aid the diagnoses of the COVID–19 even on asymptomatic patients, and thus would be an essential means for determining its prevalence. Likewise, nanoscale fibers can optimize personal equipment protection and allow their reusability for medical and economic benefits. Accordingly, the literature was intensively reviewed by searching for the combinations of the research keywords in the official scientific databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Hence, this research highlighted the perspective contributions of nanotechnology in the war against the COVID-19 pandemic.

Nanotechnology: an emerging approach to combat COVID-19

The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has challenged the survival of human existence in the last 1 year. Frontline healthcare professionals were struggling in combating the pandemic situation and were continuously supported with literature, skill set, research activities, and technologies developed by various scientists/researchers all over the world. To handle the continuously mutating severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) requires amalgamation of conventional technology with emerging approaches. Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology dealing at the nanoscale level. It has made possible the development of nanomaterials, nano-biosensors, nanodrugs, and vaccines for diagnosis, therapy, and prevention of COVID-19. This review has elaborately highlighted the role of nanotechnology in developing various detection kits such as nanoparticle-assisted diagnostics, antibody assay, lateral flow immunoassay, nanomaterial biosensors, etc., in detection of SARS-CoV-2. Similarly, various advancements supervene through nanoparticle-based therapeutic drugs for inhibiting viral infection by blocking virus attachment/cell entry, multiplication/replication, and direct inactivation of the virus. Furthermore, information on vaccine development and the role of nanocarriers/nanoparticles were highlighted with a brief outlining of nanomaterial usage in sterilization and preventive mechanisms engineered to combat COVID-19 pandemic.

How can nanotechnology help to combat COVID-19? Opportunities and urgent need

Incidents of viral outbreaks have increased at an alarming rate over the past decades. The most recent human coronavirus known as COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) has already spread around the world and shown R0 values from 2.2 to 2.68. However, the ratio between mortality and number of infections seems to be lower in this case in comparison to other human coronaviruses (such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)). These outbreaks have tested the limits of healthcare systems and have posed serious questions about management using conventional therapies and diagnostic tools. In this regard, the use of nanotechnology offers new opportunities for the development of novel strategies in terms of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 and other viral infections. In this review, we discuss the use of nanotechnology for COVID-19 virus management by the development of nano-based materials, such as disinfectants, personal protective equipment, diagnostic systems and nanocarrier systems, for treatments and vaccine development, as well as the challenges and drawbacks that need addressing.

Physicochemical and Morphological Transformations of Chitosan Nanoparticles across the Gastrointestinal Tract and Cellular Toxicity in an In Vitro Model of the Small Intestinal Epithelium

Nanoscale chitosan materials exhibit size-specific properties that make them useful in agri-food and biomedical applications. Chitosan nanoparticles (Chnps) are being explored as nanocarrier platforms to increase oral bioavailability of drugs and nutraceuticals, but little is known of their fate and transformations in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or of their potential toxicity. Here, the GIT fate and cytotoxicity of Chnps, soluble starch-coated Chnps (SS-Chnps), and bulk chitosan powder (Chp), were assessed using a 3-phase simulated digestion and an in vitro cellular small intestinal epithelium model. Physico-chemical characterization revealed dissolution of Chp, but not of Chnps or SS-Chnps, during the gastric phase of digestion, stability of the starch coating of SS-Chnps in the oral and gastric phases, and agglomeration of all materials during the small intestinal phase. A slight but significant (10%, p < 0.01) increase in cytotoxicity (LDH release) was observed with exposure to digested Chnps but not Chp or SS-Chnps.

Prediction of protein corona on nanomaterials by machine learning using novel descriptors

Effective in silico methods to predict protein corona compositions on engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) could help elucidate the biological outcomes of ENMs in biosystems without the need for conducting lengthy experiments for corona characterization. However, the physicochemical properties of ENMs, used as the descriptors in current modeling methods, are insufficient to represent the complex interactions between ENMs and proteins. Herein, we utilized the fluorescence change (FC) from fluorescamine labeling on a protein, with or without the presence of the ENM, as a novel descriptor of the ENM to build machine learning models for corona formation. FCs were significantly correlated with the abundance of the corresponding proteins in the corona on diverse classes of ENMs, including metal and metal oxides, nanocellulose, and 2D ENMs. Prediction models established by the random forest algorithm using FCs as the ENM descriptors showed better performance than the conventional descriptors, such as ENM size and surface charge, in the prediction of corona formation. Moreover, they were able to predict protein corona formation on ENMs with very heterogeneous properties. We believe this novel descriptor can improve in silico studies of corona formation, leading to a better understanding on the protein adsorption behaviors of diverse ENMs in different biological matrices. Such information is essential for gaining a comprehensive view of how ENMs interact with biological systems in ENM safety and sustainability assessments.

Integrated Transcriptomics, Metabolomics, and Lipidomics Profiling in Rat Lung, Blood, and Serum for Assessment of Laser Printer-Emitted Nanoparticle Inhalation Exposure-Induced Disease Risks

Laser printer-emitted nanoparticles (PEPs) generated from toners during printing represent one of the most common types of life cycle released particulate matter from nano-enabled products. Toxicological assessment of PEPs is therefore important for occupational and consumer health protection. Our group recently reported exposure to PEPs induces adverse cardiovascular responses including hypertension and arrythmia via monitoring left ventricular pressure and electrocardiogram in rats. This study employed genome-wide mRNA and miRNA profiling in rat lung and blood integrated with metabolomics and lipidomics profiling in rat serum to identify biomarkers for assessing PEPs-induced disease risks. Whole-body inhalation of PEPs perturbed transcriptional activities associated with cardiovascular dysfunction, metabolic syndrome, and neural disorders at every observed time point in both rat lung and blood during the 21 days of exposure. Furthermore, the systematic analysis revealed PEPs-induced transcriptomic changes linking to other disease risks in rats, including diabetes, congenital defects, auto-recessive disorders, physical deformation, and carcinogenesis. The results were also confirmed with global metabolomics profiling in rat serum. Among the validated metabolites and lipids, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, docosahexanoic acid, and histidine showed significant variation in PEPs-exposed rat serum. Overall, the identified PEPs-induced dysregulated genes, molecular pathways and functions, and miRNA-mediated transcriptional activities provide important insights into the disease mechanisms. The discovered important mRNAs, miRNAs, lipids and metabolites may serve as candidate biomarkers for future occupational and medical surveillance studies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study systematically integrating in vivo, transcriptomics, metabolomics, and lipidomics to assess PEPs inhalation exposure-induced disease risks using a rat model.

A novel method for textile odor removal using engineered water nanostructures

The malodor attached to textiles not only causes indoor environmental pollution but also endangers people's health even at low concentrations. Existing technologies cannot effectively eliminate the odor. Herein, an effective and environmentally friendly technology was proposed to address this challenging issue. This technology utilizes electrospraying process to produce Engineered Water Nanostructures (EWNS) in a controllable manner. Upon application of a high voltage to the Taylor cone, EWNS can be generated from the condensed vapor water through a Peltier element. Smoking, cooking and perspiration, considered the typical indoor malodorous gases emitted from human activities, were studied in this paper. A headspace SPME method in conjunction with GC-MS was employed for the extraction, detection and quantification of any odor residues. Results indicated that EWNS played a significant role in the deodorization process with removal efficiencies for the three odors were 95.3 ± 0.1%, 100.0 ± 0.0% and 43.7 ± 2.3%, respectively. The Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) contained in the EWNS, mainly hydroxyl (OH˙) and superoxide radicals are the possible mechanisms for the odor removal. These ROS are strong oxidative and highly reactive and have the ability to convert odorous compounds to non-odorous compounds through various chemical reaction mechanisms. This study showed clearly the potential of the proposed method in the field of odor removal and can be applied in the battle against indoor air pollution.