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Li X, Jin DS, Eadara S, Caterina MJ, Meffert MK. Regulation by noncoding RNAs of local translation, injury responses, and pain in the peripheral nervous system. NEUROBIOLOGY OF PAIN (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2023; 13:100119. [PMID: 36798094 PMCID: PMC9926024 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynpai.2023.100119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a chronic condition arising from damage to somatosensory pathways that results in pathological hypersensitivity. Persistent pain can be viewed as a consequence of maladaptive plasticity which, like most enduring forms of cellular plasticity, requires altered expression of specific gene programs. Control of gene expression at the level of protein synthesis is broadly utilized to directly modulate changes in activity and responsiveness in nociceptive pathways and provides an effective mechanism for compartmentalized regulation of the proteome in peripheral nerves through local translation. Levels of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are commonly impacted by peripheral nerve injury leading to persistent pain. NcRNAs exert spatiotemporal regulation of local proteomes and affect signaling cascades supporting altered sensory responses that contribute to hyperalgesia. This review discusses ncRNAs found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that are dysregulated following nerve injury and the current understanding of their roles in pathophysiological pain-related responses including neuroimmune interactions, neuronal survival and axon regeneration, Schwann cell dedifferentiation and proliferation, intercellular communication, and the generation of ectopic action potentials in primary afferents. We review progress in the field beyond cataloging, with a focus on the relevant target transcripts and mechanisms underlying pain modulation by ncRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinbei Li
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Daniel S. Jin
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Sreenivas Eadara
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Michael J. Caterina
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
- Department of Neurosurgery and Neurosurgery Pain Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Mollie K. Meffert
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, United States
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Yuan Y, Wang Y, Wu S, Zhao MY. Review: Myelin clearance is critical for regeneration after peripheral nerve injury. Front Neurol 2022; 13:908148. [PMID: 36588879 PMCID: PMC9801717 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.908148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic peripheral nerve injury occurs frequently and is a major clinical and public health problem that can lead to functional impairment and permanent disability. Despite the availability of modern diagnostic procedures and advanced microsurgical techniques, active recovery after peripheral nerve repair is often unsatisfactory. Peripheral nerve regeneration involves several critical events, including the recreation of the microenvironment and remyelination. Results from previous studies suggest that the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has a greater capacity for repair than the central nervous system. Thus, it will be important to understand myelin and myelination specifically in the PNS. This review provides an update on myelin biology and myelination in the PNS and discusses the mechanisms that promote myelin clearance after injury. The roles of Schwann cells and macrophages are considered at length, together with the possibility of exogenous intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- YiMing Yuan
- Laboratory of Brain Function and Neurorehabilitation, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Laboratory of Brain Function and Neurorehabilitation, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China,Department of Rehabilitation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China,*Correspondence: Yan Wang
| | - ShanHong Wu
- Laboratory of Brain Function and Neurorehabilitation, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Ming Yue Zhao
- Laboratory of Brain Function and Neurorehabilitation, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China,Department of Rehabilitation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
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Pharmacological inhibition of BACE1 suppresses glioblastoma growth by stimulating macrophage phagocytosis of tumor cells. NATURE CANCER 2021; 2:1136-1151. [PMID: 35122055 PMCID: PMC8809483 DOI: 10.1038/s43018-021-00267-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) contains abundant tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). The majority of TAMs are tumor-promoting macrophages (pTAMs), while tumor-suppressive macrophages (sTAMs) are the minority. Thus, reprogramming pTAMs into sTAMs represents an attractive therapeutic strategy. By screening a collection of small-molecule compounds, we find that inhibiting β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) with MK-8931 potently reprograms pTAMs into sTAMs and promotes macrophage phagocytosis of glioma cells; moreover, low-dose radiation markedly enhances TAM infiltration and synergizes with MK-8931 treatment to suppress malignant growth. BACE1 is preferentially expressed by pTAMs in human GBMs and is required to maintain pTAM polarization through trans-interleukin 6 (IL-6)-soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R)-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling. Because MK-8931 and other BACE1 inhibitors have been developed for Alzheimer's disease and have been shown to be safe for humans in clinical trials, these inhibitors could potentially be streamlined for cancer therapy. Collectively, this study offers a promising therapeutic approach to enhance macrophage-based therapy for malignant tumors.
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Matsui H, Sopko NA, Campbell JD, Liu X, Reinhardt A, Weyne E, Castiglione F, Albersen M, Hannan JL, Bivalacqua TJ. Increased Level of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) Leads to Downregulation of Nitrergic Neurons Following Bilateral Cavernous Nerve Injury and Modulates Penile Smooth Tone. J Sex Med 2021; 18:1181-1190. [PMID: 37057424 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Erectile dysfunction (ED) after injury to peripheral cavernous nerve (CN) is partly a result of inflammation in pelvic ganglia, suggesting that ED may be prevented by inhibiting neuroinflammation. AIM The aim of this study is to examine temporal changes of TNF-α, after bilateral CN injury (BCNI), to evaluate effect of exogenous TNF-α on neurite outgrowth from major pelvic ganglion (MPG), and to investigate effect of TNF-α signal inhibition to evaluate effects of TNF-α on penile tone with TNF-α receptor knockout mice (TNFRKO). METHODS Seventy Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized to undergo BCNI or sham surgery. Sham rats' MPGs were harvested after 48 hours, whereas BCNI groups' MPGs were at 6, 12, 24, 48 hours, 7, or 14 days after surgery. qPCR was used to evaluate gene expression of markers for neuroinflammation in MPGs. Western blot was performed to evaluate TNF-α protein amount in MPGs. MPGs were harvested from healthy rats and cultured in Matrigel with TNF-α. Neurite outgrowth from MPGs was measured after 3 days, and TH and nNOS immunofluorescence was assessed. Wild type (WT) and TNFRKO mice were used to examine effect of TNF-α inhibition on smooth muscle function after BCNI. MPGs were harvested 48 hours after sham or BCNI surgery to evaluate gene expression of nNOS and TH. OUTCOMES Gene expression of TNF-α signaling pathway, Schwann cell and macrophage markers, protein expression of TNF-α in MPGs, and penile smooth muscle function to electrical field stimulation (EFS) were evaluated. RESULTS BCNI increased gene and protein expression of TNF-α in MPGs. Exogenous TNF-α inhibited MPG neurite outgrowth. MPGs cultured with TNF-α had decreased gene expression of nNOS (P < .05). MPGs cultured with TNF-α had shorter nNOS+ neurites than TH+ neurites (P < .01). Gene expression of nNOS was enhanced in TNFRKO mice compared to WT mice (P < .01). WT mice showed enhanced smooth muscle contraction of penises of WT mice was enhanced to EFS, compared to TNFKO (P < .01). Penile smooth-muscle relaxation to EFS was greater in TNFKO mice compared to WT (P < .01). CLINICAL TRANSLATION TNF-α inhibition may prevent ED after prostatectomy. STRENGTH/LIMITATIONS TNF-α inhibition might prevent loss of nitrergic nerve apoptosis after BCNI and preserve corporal smooth muscle function but further investigation is required to evaluate protein expression of nNOS in MPGs of TNFKO mice. CONCLUSIONS TNF-α inhibited neurite outgrowth from MPGs by downregulating gene expression of nNOS and TNFRKO mice showed enhanced gene expression of nNOS and enhanced penile smooth-muscle relaxation. Matsui H, Sopko NA, Campbell JD, et al. Increased Level of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) Leads to Downregulation of Nitrergic Neurons Following Bilateral Cavernous Nerve Injury and Modulates Penile Smooth Tone. J Sex Med 2021;18:1181-1190.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hotaka Matsui
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Urology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Nikolai A Sopko
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Campbell
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Xiaopu Liu
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Emmanuel Weyne
- Laboratory for Experimental Urology, Department of Development and Regeneration, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Fabio Castiglione
- Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, UK; Division of Oncology / Unit of Urology, Urological Research Institute, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Maarten Albersen
- Laboratory for Experimental Urology, Department of Development and Regeneration, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Johanna L Hannan
- Department of Physiology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Trinity J Bivalacqua
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Fissel JA, Farah MH. Macrophage-specific deletion of BACE1 does not enhance macrophage recruitment to the injured peripheral nerve. J Neuroimmunol 2020; 349:577423. [PMID: 33074142 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Following peripheral nerve injury, macrophages are recruited to the injury site from circulation to clear cellular debris. Injured β-secretase 1 (BACE1) knockout mice have enhanced macrophage recruitment and debris clearance, which may be due to BACE1 activity in macrophages or the hypomyelination observed in BACE1 knockout mice. To assess if BACE1 expression by macrophages mediates enhanced macrophage recruitment we utilized mice with macrophage specific deletion of BACE1 and saw no increase in macrophage recruitment following injury. This study suggests that expression of BACE1 by macrophages may not be essential for increased recruitment observed previously in global BACE1 KO mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Fissel
- Department of Neurology at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mohamed H Farah
- Department of Neurology at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Cadaret CN, Posont RJ, Beede KA, Riley HE, Loy JD, Yates DT. Maternal inflammation at midgestation impairs subsequent fetal myoblast function and skeletal muscle growth in rats, resulting in intrauterine growth restriction at term. Transl Anim Sci 2019; 3:txz037. [PMID: 31032478 PMCID: PMC6476527 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txz037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal inflammation induces intrauterine growth restriction (MI-IUGR) of the fetus, which compromises metabolic health in human offspring and reduces value in livestock. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of maternal inflammation at midgestation on fetal skeletal muscle growth and myoblast profiles at term. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were injected daily with bacterial endotoxin (MI-IUGR) or saline (controls) from the 9th to the 11th day of gestational age (dGA; term = 21 dGA). At necropsy on dGA 20, average fetal mass and upper hindlimb cross-sectional areas were reduced (P < 0.05) in MI-IUGR fetuses compared with controls. MyoD+ and myf5+ myoblasts were less abundant (P < 0.05), and myogenin+ myoblasts were more abundant (P < 0.05) in MI-IUGR hindlimb skeletal muscle compared with controls, indicating precocious myoblast differentiation. Type I and Type II hindlimb muscle fibers were smaller (P < 0.05) in MI-IUGR fetuses than in controls, but fiber type proportions did not differ between experimental groups. Fetal blood plasma TNFα concentrations were below detectable amounts in both experimental groups, but skeletal muscle gene expression for the cytokine receptors TNFR1, IL6R, and FN14 was greater (P < 0.05) in MI-IUGR fetuses than controls, perhaps indicating enhanced sensitivity to these cytokines. Maternal blood glucose concentrations at term did not differ between experimental groups, but MI-IUGR fetal blood contained less (P < 0.05) glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. Fetal-to-maternal blood glucose ratios were also reduced (P < 0.05), which is indicative of placental insufficiency. Indicators of protein catabolism, including blood plasma urea nitrogen and creatine kinase, were greater (P < 0.05) in MI-IUGR fetuses than in controls. From these findings, we conclude that maternal inflammation at midgestation causes muscle-centric fetal programming that impairs myoblast function, increases protein catabolism, and reduces skeletal muscle growth near term. Fetal muscle sensitivity to inflammatory cytokines appeared to be enhanced after maternal inflammation, which may represent a mechanistic target for improving these outcomes in MI-IUGR fetuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin N Cadaret
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE
| | - Robert J Posont
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE
| | - Kristin A Beede
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE
| | - Hannah E Riley
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE
| | - John Dustin Loy
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE
| | - Dustin T Yates
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE.,Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE
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Tallon C, Farah MH. Beta secretase activity in peripheral nerve regeneration. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:1565-1574. [PMID: 29171411 PMCID: PMC5696827 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.217319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
While the peripheral nervous system has the capacity to regenerate following a nerve injury, it is often at a slow rate and results in unsatisfactory recovery, leaving patients with reduced function. Many regeneration associated genes have been identified over the years, which may shed some insight into how we can manipulate this intrinsic regenerative ability to enhance repair following peripheral nerve injuries. Our lab has identified the membrane bound protease beta-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), or beta secretase, as a potential negative regulator of peripheral nerve regeneration. When beta secretase activity levels are abolished via a null mutation in mice, peripheral regeneration is enhanced following a sciatic nerve crush injury. Conversely, when activity levels are greatly increased by overexpressing beta secretase in mice, nerve regeneration and functional recovery are impaired after a sciatic nerve crush injury. In addition to our work, many substrates of beta secretase have been found to be involved in regulating neurite outgrowth and some have even been identified as regeneration associated genes. In this review, we set out to discuss BACE1 and its substrates with respect to axonal regeneration and speculate on the possibility of utilizing BACE1 inhibitors to enhance regeneration following acute nerve injury and potential uses in peripheral neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Tallon
- Department of Neurology at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mohamed H. Farah
- Department of Neurology at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Tallon C, Rockenstein E, Masliah E, Farah MH. Increased BACE1 activity inhibits peripheral nerve regeneration after injury. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 106:147-157. [PMID: 28687442 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Axons of the peripheral nervous system possess the capacity to regenerate following injury. Previously, we showed that genetically knocking out Beta-Site APP-Cleaving Enzyme 1 (BACE1) leads to increased nerve regeneration. Two cellular components, macrophages and neurons, contribute to enhanced nerve regeneration in BACE1 knockout mice. Here, we utilized a transgenic mouse model that overexpresses BACE1 in its neurons to investigate whether neuronal BACE1 has an inverse effect on regeneration following nerve injury. We performed a sciatic nerve crush in BACE1 transgenic mice and control wild-type littermates, and evaluated the extent of both morphological and physiological improvements over time. At the earliest time point of 3days, we observed a significant decrease in the length of axonal sprouts growing out from the crush site in BACE1 transgenic mice. At later times (10 and 15days post-crush), there were significant reductions in the number of myelinated axons in the sciatic nerve and the percentage of re-innervated neuromuscular junctions in the gastrocnemius muscle. Transgenic mice had a functional electrophysiological delay in the recovery up to 8weeks post-crush compared to controls. These results indicate that BACE1 activity levels have an inverse effect on peripheral nerve repair after injury. The results obtained in this study provide evidence that neuronal BACE1 activity levels impact peripheral nerve regeneration. This data has clinical relevance by highlighting a novel drug target to enhance peripheral nerve repair, an area which currently does not have any approved therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Tallon
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Edward Rockenstein
- Department of Neurosciences, San Diego School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Department of Neurosciences, San Diego School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States; Department of Molecular Pathology, San Diego School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Mohamed H Farah
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.
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Ito N, Sakai A, Miyake N, Maruyama M, Iwasaki H, Miyake K, Okada T, Sakamoto A, Suzuki H. miR-15b mediates oxaliplatin-induced chronic neuropathic pain through BACE1 down-regulation. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:386-395. [PMID: 28012171 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 12/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Although oxaliplatin is an effective anti-cancer platinum compound, it can cause painful chronic neuropathy, and its molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate gene expression in a sequence-specific manner. Although miRNAs have been increasingly recognized as important modulators in a variety of pain conditions, their involvement in chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain is unknown. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Oxaliplatin-induced chronic neuropathic pain was induced in rats by i.p. injections of oxaliplatin (2 mg·kg-1 ) for five consecutive days. The expression levels of miR-15b and β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1 also known as β-secretase 1) were examined in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG). To examine the function of miR-15b, an adeno-associated viral vector encoding miR-15b was injected into the DRG in vivo. KEY RESULTS Among the miRNAs examined in the DRG in the late phase of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain, miR-15b was most robustly increased. Our in vitro assay results determined that BACE1 was a target of miR-15b. BACE1 and miR-15b were co-expressed in putative myelinated and unmyelinated DRG neurons. Overexpression of miR-15b in DRG neurons caused mechanical allodynia in association with reduced expression of BACE1. Consistent with these results, a BACE1 inhibitor dose-dependently induced significant mechanical allodynia. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These findings suggest that miR-15b contributes to oxaliplatin-induced chronic neuropathic pain at least in part through the down-regulation of BACE1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Ito
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Anesthesiology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Atsushi Sakai
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriko Miyake
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motoyo Maruyama
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.,Division of Laboratory Animal Science, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Iwasaki
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Anesthesiology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koichi Miyake
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Okada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Hidenori Suzuki
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
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