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Zou YT, Li JY, Chai JY, Hu YS, Zhang WJ, Zhang Q. The impact of the P2X7 receptor on the tumor immune microenvironment and its effects on tumor progression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 707:149513. [PMID: 38508051 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.149513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Cancer is a significant global health concern, and finding effective methods to treat it has been a focus of scientific research. It has been discovered that the growth, invasion, and metastasis of tumors are closely related to the environment in which they exist, known as the tumor microenvironment (TME). The immune response interacting with the tumor occurring within the TME constitutes the tumor immune microenvironment, and the immune response can lead to anti-tumor and pro-tumor outcomes and has shown tremendous potential in immunotherapy. A channel called the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) has been identified within the TME. It is an ion channel present in various immune cells and tumor cells, and its activation can lead to inflammation, immune responses, angiogenesis, immunogenic cell death, and promotion of tumor development. This article provides an overview of the structure, function, and pharmacological characteristics of P2X7R. We described the concept and components of tumor immune microenvironment and the influence immune components has on tumors. We also outlined the impact of P2X7R regulation and how it affects the development of tumors and summarized the effects of drugs targeting P2X7R on tumor progression, both past and current, assisting researchers in treating tumors using P2X7R as a target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Zou
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Jin-Yuan Li
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Jun-Yi Chai
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Yu-Shan Hu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
| | - Wen-Jun Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China; The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China.
| | - Qiao Zhang
- Orthopedics Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
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Iring-Varga B, Baranyi M, Gölöncsér F, Tod P, Sperlágh B. The antidepressant effect of short- and long-term zinc exposition is partly mediated by P2X7 receptors in male mice. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1241406. [PMID: 37908978 PMCID: PMC10613712 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1241406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: As a member of the purinergic receptor family, divalent cation-regulated ionotropic P2X7 (P2rx7) plays a role in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. This study aimed to investigate whether the effects of acute zinc administration and long-term zinc deprivation on depression-like behaviors in mice are mediated by P2X7 receptors. Methods: The antidepressant-like effect of elevated zinc level was studied using a single acute intraperitoneal injection in C57BL6/J wild-type and P2rx7 gene-deficient (P2rx7 -/-) young adult and elderly animals in the tail suspension test (TST) and the forced swim test (FST). In the long-term experiments, depression-like behavior caused by zinc deficiency was investigated with the continuous administration of zinc-reduced and control diets for 8 weeks, followed by the same behavioral tests. The actual change in zinc levels owing to the treatments was examined by assaying serum zinc levels. Changes in monoamine and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels were measured from the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex brain areas by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. Results: A single acute zinc treatment increased the serum zinc level evoked antidepressant-like effect in both genotypes and age groups, except TST in elderly P2rx7 -/- animals, where no significant effect was detected. Likewise, the pro-depressant effect of zinc deprivation was observed in young adult mice in the FST and TST, which was alleviated in the case of the TST in the absence of functional P2X7 receptors. Among elderly mice, no pro-depressant effect was observed in P2rx7 -/- mice in either tests. Treatment and genotype changes in monoamine and BDNF levels were also detected in the hippocampi. Conclusion: Changes in zinc intake were associated with age-related changes in behavior in the TST and FST. The antidepressant-like effect of zinc is partially mediated by the P2X7 receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernadett Iring-Varga
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Doctoral School, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mária Baranyi
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Flóra Gölöncsér
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Pál Tod
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beáta Sperlágh
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
- János Szentágothai Doctoral School, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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von Mücke-Heim IA, Deussing JM. The P2X7 receptor in mood disorders: Emerging target in immunopsychiatry, from bench to bedside. Neuropharmacology 2023; 224:109366. [PMID: 36470368 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Psychiatric disorders are among the most burdensome disorders worldwide. Though therapies have evolved over the last decades, treatment resistance still affects many patients. Recently, neuroimmune systems have been identified as important factors of mood disorder biology. The underlying dysregulation in neuroimmune cross-talk is driven by genetic risk factors and accumulating adverse environmental influences like chronic psychosocial stress. These result in a cluster of proinflammatory cytokines and quantitative and functional changes of immune cell populations (e.g., microglia, monocytes, T cells), varying by disease entity and state. Among the emerging immune targets, purinergic signalling revolving around the membranous and ATP specific P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) has gained wider attention and clinical studies making use of antagonistic drugs are on-going. Still, no clinically meaningful applications have been identified so far. A major problem is the often overly simplified approach taken to translate findings from bench to bedside. Therefore, the present review focuses on purinergic signalling via P2X7R in the context of recent advances in immunopsychiatric mood disorder research. Our aim is to provide an overview of the current P2X7R-related findings, from bench to bedside. First, we summarize the characteristics of purinergic signalling and P2X7R, followed by a depiction of genetic and clinical data connecting P2X7R to mood disorders. We close with our perspective on current developments and discuss changes necessary to translate the evident potential of P2X7R signalling modulation into meaningful clinical application. This article is part of the Special Issue on 'Purinergic Signaling: 50 years'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan M Deussing
- Max Planck Institute for Psychiatry, Molecular Neurogenetics, Munich, Germany.
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Urbina-Treviño L, von Mücke-Heim IA, Deussing JM. P2X7 Receptor-Related Genetic Mouse Models – Tools for Translational Research in Psychiatry. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:876304. [PMID: 35422688 PMCID: PMC9001905 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.876304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a common psychiatric disorder and the leading cause of disability worldwide. Although treatments are available, only about 60% of treated patients experience a significant improvement in disease symptoms. Numerous clinical and rodent studies have identified the purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) as one of the genetic factors potentially contributing to the disease risk. In this respect, genetically engineered mouse models targeting the P2X7R have become increasingly important in studying designated immunological features and subtypes of depression in vivo. This review provides an overview of the P2X7R -related mouse lines currently available for translational psychiatric research and discusses their strengths, weaknesses, and potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Urbina-Treviño
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Molecular Neurogenetics, Munich, Germany
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Iven-Alex von Mücke-Heim
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Molecular Neurogenetics, Munich, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Jan M. Deussing
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Molecular Neurogenetics, Munich, Germany
- *Correspondence: Jan M. Deussing,
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Beyond Seizure Control: Treating Comorbidities in Epilepsy via Targeting of the P2X7 Receptor. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23042380. [PMID: 35216493 PMCID: PMC8875404 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). Treatment of epilepsy remains, however, a clinical challenge with over 30% of patients not responding to current pharmacological interventions. Complicating management of treatment, epilepsy comes with multiple comorbidities, thereby further reducing the quality of life of patients. Increasing evidence suggests purinergic signalling via extracellularly released ATP as shared pathological mechanisms across numerous brain diseases. Once released, ATP activates specific purinergic receptors, including the ionotropic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R). Among brain diseases, the P2X7R has attracted particular attention as a therapeutic target. The P2X7R is an important driver of inflammation, and its activation requires high levels of extracellular ATP to be reached under pathological conditions. Suggesting the therapeutic potential of drugs targeting the P2X7R for epilepsy, P2X7R expression increases following status epilepticus and during epilepsy, and P2X7R antagonism modulates seizure severity and epilepsy development. P2X7R antagonism has, however, also been shown to be effective in treating conditions most commonly associated with epilepsy such as psychiatric disorders and cognitive deficits, which suggests that P2X7R antagonisms may provide benefits beyond seizure control. This review summarizes the evidence suggesting drugs targeting the P2X7R as a novel treatment strategy for epilepsy with a particular focus of its potential impact on epilepsy-associated comorbidities.
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Huang Z, Tan S. P2X7 Receptor as a Potential Target for Major Depressive Disorder. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 22:1108-1120. [PMID: 33494675 DOI: 10.2174/1389450122666210120141908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common mental disorder. Although the genetic, biochemical, and psychological factors have been related to the development of MDD, it is generally believed that a series of pathological changes in the brain caused by chronic stress is the main cause of MDD. However, the specific mechanisms underlying chronic stress-induced MDD are largely undermined. Recent investigations have found that increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and changes in the inflammatory pathway in the microglia cells in the brain are the potential pathophysiological mechanism of MDD. P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) and its mediated signaling pathway play a key role in microglia activation. The present review aimed to present and discuss the accumulating data on the role of P2X7R in MDD. Firstly, we summarized the research progress in the correlation between P2X7R and MDD. Subsequently, we presented the P2X7R mediated microglia activation in MDD and the role of P2X7R in increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability caused by chronic stress. Lastly, we also discussed the potential mechanism underlying-P2X7R expression changes after chronic stress. In conclusion, P2X7R is a key molecule regulating the activation of microglia. Chronic stress activates microglia in the hippocampus by secreting interleukin- 1β (IL-1β) and other inflammatory cytokines, and increasing the BBB permeability, thus promoting the occurrence and development of MDD, which indicated that P2X7R might be a promising therapeutic target for MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeyi Huang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Clinical Anatomy & Reproductive Medicine, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Sijie Tan
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Clinical Anatomy & Reproductive Medicine, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, 421001, Hunan, China
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Szopa A, Socała K, Serefko A, Doboszewska U, Wróbel A, Poleszak E, Wlaź P. Purinergic transmission in depressive disorders. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 224:107821. [PMID: 33607148 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Purinergic signaling involves the actions of purine nucleotides and nucleosides (such as adenosine) at P1 (adenosine), P2X, and P2Y receptors. Here, we present recent data contributing to a comprehensive overview of the association between purinergic signaling and depression. We start with background information on adenosine production and metabolism, followed by a detailed characterization of P1 and P2 receptors, with an emphasis on their expression and function in the brain as well as on their ligands. We provide data suggestive of altered metabolism of adenosine in depressed patients, which might be regarded as a disease biomarker. We then turn to considerable amount of preclinical/behavioral data obtained with the aid of the forced swim test, tail suspension test, learned helplessness model, or unpredictable chronic mild stress model and genetic activation/inactivation of P1 or P2 receptors as well as nonselective or selective ligands of P1 or P2 receptors. We also aimed to discuss the reason underlying discrepancies observed in such studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Szopa
- Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 1, PL 20-093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Socała
- Department of Animal Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, PL 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Serefko
- Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 1, PL 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Urszula Doboszewska
- Department of Animal Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, PL 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Andrzej Wróbel
- Second Department of Gynecology, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, PL 20-090 Lublin, Poland
| | - Ewa Poleszak
- Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 1, PL 20-093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Piotr Wlaź
- Department of Animal Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, PL 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
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Vereczkei A, Abdul-Rahman O, Halmai Z, Nagy G, Szekely A, Somogyi A, Faludi G, Nemoda Z. Association of purinergic receptor P2RX7 gene polymorphisms with depression symptoms. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 92:207-216. [PMID: 30664971 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The activation of the ATP-gated P2RX7 (purinergic receptor P2X, ligand-gated ion channel, 7) produces microglial activation, a process which has been demonstrated in depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Emerging data over the last years highlighted the importance of P2X7 cation channel as a potential drug target for these central nervous system disorders. The Gln460Arg (rs2230912) polymorphism of the P2RX7 gene has been widely studied in mood disorders, however the results are still controversial. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the C-terminal region of this gene in major depressive and bipolar disorders (MDD and BD) by studying possibly functional, non-synonymous polymorphisms within a 7 kb long region around the Gln460Arg, including Ala348Thr (rs1718119), Thr357Ser (rs2230911), and Glu496Ala (rs3751143) variants. Since Gln460Arg is located at the 3' end of the P2RX7 gene, we included additional, potentially functional single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from the 3' untranslated region (UTR), which can be in linkage with Gln460Arg. Based on in silico search, we chose two SNPs in putative microRNA target sites which are located in consecutive positions: rs1653625 and rs1718106. METHODS P2RX7 SNPs from the C-terminal region were selected based on previous functional assays, 3' UTR variants were chosen using PolymiRTS and Patrocles databases. The genotyping of the non-synonymous SNPs was carried out by pre-designed TaqMan® kits, while the 3' UTR variants were analyzed by PCR-RFLP method. Case-control analyses were carried out between 315 inpatients with acute major depressive episode (195 MDD, 120 BD) and 406 healthy control subjects. The two subscales of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) self-report questionnaire were used for quantitative analyses, including an additional, "at-risk" population of 218 patients with diabetes mellitus. The in vitro reporter gene assays were carried out on HEK and SK-N-FI cells transiently transfected with pMIR vector constructs containing the P2RX7 3' UTR downstream of the luciferase gene. RESULTS Haplotype analysis indicated a relatively high linkage between the analyzed P2RX7 SNPs. Our case-control study did not yield any association between P2RX7 gene variants and depression. However, dimensional analyses showed significant associations of the HADS depression severity scores with Gln460Arg (rs2230912) and Ala348Thr (rs1718119) in the depressed and diabetic patient groups. In the in vitro experiments, the P2RX7 3' UTR constructs with the lowest predicted binding efficiency to their miRNAs showed the highest expression of the gene. The combination of the depression-associated P2RX7 C-terminal and 3' UTR SNPs contributed to the highest depression severity score in the haplotype analysis. CONCLUSION Based on our findings, we propose that a P2RX7 haplotype combination of the Gln460Arg and neighboring SNPs contribute to the observed genetic association with depressive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Vereczkei
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Omar Abdul-Rahman
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsuzsa Halmai
- Department of Psychiatry, Kútvölgyi Clinical Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary; Bhaktivedanta College, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Geza Nagy
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Anna Szekely
- Institute of Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Aniko Somogyi
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gabor Faludi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kútvölgyi Clinical Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsofia Nemoda
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
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Wei L, Syed Mortadza SA, Yan J, Zhang L, Wang L, Yin Y, Li C, Chalon S, Emond P, Belzung C, Li D, Lu C, Roger S, Jiang LH. ATP-activated P2X7 receptor in the pathophysiology of mood disorders and as an emerging target for the development of novel antidepressant therapeutics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 87:192-205. [PMID: 29453990 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mood disorders are a group of psychiatric conditions that represent leading global disease burdens. Increasing evidence from clinical and preclinical studies supports that innate immune system dysfunction plays an important part in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. P2X7 receptor, belonging to the ligand-gated ion channel P2X subfamily of purinergic P2 receptors for extracellular ATP, is highly expressed in immune cells including microglia in the central nervous system (CNS) and has a vital role in mediating innate immune response. The P2X7 receptor is also important in neuron-glia signalling in the CNS. The gene encoding human P2X7 receptor is located in a locus of susceptibility to mood disorders. In this review, we will discuss the recent progress in understanding the role of the P2X7 receptor in the pathogenesis and development of mood disorders and in discovering CNS-penetrable P2X7 antagonists for potential uses in in vivo imaging to monitor brain inflammation and antidepressant therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyu Wei
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Sharifah A Syed Mortadza
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jing Yan
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Libin Zhang
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Yaling Yin
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Chaokun Li
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Sylvie Chalon
- Inserm UMR 1253, iBrain, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Patrick Emond
- Inserm UMR 1253, iBrain, Université de Tours, Tours, France; CHRU de Tours, Service de Médecine Nucléaire In Vitro, Tours, France
| | | | - Dongliang Li
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China; Key Laboratory for the Brain Research of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Chengbiao Lu
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China; Key Laboratory for the Brain Research of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China
| | - Sebastien Roger
- Inserm UMR1069, Nutrition, Croissance et Cancer, Université de Tours, France; Institut Universitaire de France, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Lin-Hua Jiang
- Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Xinxiang Medical University, China; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; Institut Universitaire de France, Paris Cedex 05, France.
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Czamara D, Müller-Myhsok B, Lucae S. The P2RX7 polymorphism rs2230912 is associated with depression: A meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 82:272-277. [PMID: 29122639 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Various studies have investigated whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the gene purinergic receptor P2X7 (P2RX7), and rs2230912 specifically, were associated with mood disorders. While some studies found positive evidence, a large number of studies reported no significant associations. In a previously published meta-analysis, Feng et al. did not find a significant association and only moderate odds ratios (ORs) in case-control studies. They reported significant findings only for family-based studies. We revisited this finding and conducted a meta-analysis including 8,652 cases and 11,153 controls, adding unpublished results from the Munich Antidepressant Response Signature (MARS) study. We found a significant association between rs2230912 and combined mood disorders (major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD)) for the allelic, dominant and heterozygous-disadvantage model, all withstanding the threshold of correction for multiple testing. Stratifying by disorder revealed significant findings for the MDD-subgroup (OR of 1.12 for the allelic model), while the BD-subgroup presented with a lower effect size (OR of 1.05) and no significance. P2RX7 encodes a purinergic receptor which is expressed in the brain and also localized in immune cells. Animal studies and functional studies will be necessary to enlighten its involvement in the etiology of mood disorders and its applicability for pharmacological purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Czamara
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.
| | - B Müller-Myhsok
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Munich Cluster of Systems Biology, SyNergy, Germany; Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - S Lucae
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
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Pinna M, Manchia M, Oppo R, Scano F, Pillai G, Loche AP, Salis P, Minnai GP. Clinical and biological predictors of response to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a review. Neurosci Lett 2018; 669:32-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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12
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Zhou Y, Tan CY, Mo ZJ, Gao QL, He D, Li J, Huang RF, Li YB, Guo CF, Guo Q, Wang LJ, Yang GT, Zhang HQ. P2X7 receptor in spinal tuberculosis: Gene polymorphisms and protein levels in Chinese Han population. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 57:138-144. [PMID: 29158203 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Spinal tuberculosis (TB) accounts for 1%-5% of all TB infections. Host genetic variation influences susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) expressed on cells has been identified as a regulatory molecule in cell death/apoptosis, killing of intercellular pathogens, and bone turnover. This study investigated the P2X7 gene polymorphisms and protein levels in spinal TB. P2X7 gene -762C>T and 489C>T polymorphisms were genotyped. The expression of P2X7R in bone or intervertebral disc (ID) tissues was analyzed by Western blot assay. The -762C>T and 489C>T polymorphisms were associated with susceptibility to spinal TB. Having the -762CC genotype and -762C allele increased the risk of developing spinal TB (CC vs. TT: P=0.031, OR [95%CI]=1.865 [1.053-3.304]; C vs. T: P=0.028, OR [95%CI]=1.355 [1.034-1.775]). The presence of the 489T allele was associated with an increased risk of developing spinal TB (TT vs. CC: P=0.004, OR [95%CI]=2.248 [1.283-3.939]; CT vs. CC: P=0.044, OR [95%CI]=1.755 [1.011-3.047]; T vs. C: P=0.004, OR [95%CI]=1.482 [1.134-1.936]; TT+CT vs. CC: P=0.010, OR [95%CI]=1.967 [1.171-3.304]; TT vs. CT+CC: P=0.037, OR [95%CI]=1.489 [1.023-2.167]). The expression of P2X7R in TB-induced bone lesions increased significantly among spinal TB patients (t=0.011). Carrying the P2X7 -762CC genotype and 489T allele is associated with an increased risk of developing spinal TB in a Southern Chinese Han population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The People's Hospital of Guangxi Autonomous Region, Nanning, China
| | - Chun-Yan Tan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The People's Hospital of Guangxi Autonomous Region, Nanning, China
| | - Zhi-Jiang Mo
- Department of Pharmacy, The People's Hospital of Guangxi Autonomous Region, Nanning, China
| | - Qi-le Gao
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
| | - Dan He
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Changsha, Changsha, China
| | - Jiong Li
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Rong-Fu Huang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, China
| | - Yan-Bing Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Chao-Feng Guo
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Qiang Guo
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Long-Jie Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Guan-Teng Yang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Hong-Qi Zhang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Xiangya Spinal Surgery Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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13
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Heterozygosity for the Mood Disorder-Associated Variant Gln460Arg Alters P2X7 Receptor Function and Sleep Quality. J Neurosci 2017; 37:11688-11700. [PMID: 29079688 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3487-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A single nucleotide polymorphism substitution from glutamine (Gln, Q) to arginine (Arg, R) at codon 460 of the purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) has repeatedly been associated with mood disorders. The P2X7R-Gln460Arg variant per se is not compromised in its function. However, heterologous expression of P2X7R-Gln460Arg together with wild-type P2X7R has recently been demonstrated to impair receptor function. Here we show that this also applies to humanized mice coexpressing both human P2X7R variants. Primary hippocampal cells derived from heterozygous mice showed an attenuated calcium uptake upon agonist stimulation. While humanized mice were unaffected in their behavioral repertoire under basal housing conditions, mice that harbor both P2X7R variants showed alterations in their sleep quality resembling signs of a prodromal disease stage. Also healthy heterozygous human subjects showed mild changes in sleep parameters. These results indicate that heterozygosity for the wild-type P2X7R and its mood disorder-associated variant P2X7R-Gln460Arg represents a genetic risk factor, which is potentially able to convey susceptibility to mood disorders.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Depression and bipolar disorder are the most common mood disorders. The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) regulates many cellular functions. Its polymorphic variant Gln460Arg has repeatedly been associated with mood disorders. Genetically engineered mice, with human P2X7R, revealed that heterozygous mice (i.e., they coexpress the disease-associated Gln460Arg variant together with its normal version) have impaired receptor function and showed sleep disturbances. Human participants with the heterozygote genotype also had subtle alterations in their sleep profile. Our findings suggest that altered P2X7R function in heterozygote individuals disturbs sleep and might increase the risk for developing mood disorders.
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Ellul P, Boyer L, Groc L, Leboyer M, Fond G. Interleukin-1 β-targeted treatment strategies in inflammatory depression: toward personalized care. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2016; 134:469-484. [PMID: 27744648 DOI: 10.1111/acps.12656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES It is unknown whether a cytokine signature may help the identification of subgroup of patient who would respond to personalized treatment. As interleukin-1 beta (Il-1β) seems to play a major role in mood disorder, a systematic review and meta-analysis of its potential role in major depressive disorder (MDD) was carried out. METHODS A systematic search was performed to identify appropriate MDD vs. control studies pertaining to Il-1β. Methodological quality and possible moderators were also assessed. RESULTS A total of 1922 studies were identified, and 53 articles were selected. Results showed an association between increased blood IL-1β and MDD in high-quality studies only. No association with age was found. No IL-1β gene-related polymorphisms has been associated with MDD. No effect of antidepressant on IL-1β level has been found, although the antidepressants investigated were various. Qualitative analyses indicate that MDD coupled to a history of childhood trauma may be a subgroup for IL-1β -targeted therapies. No difference in studies utilizing a stimulation method has been identified to date. CONCLUSIONS The present work has confirmed IL-1β as a biological marker of interest for innovative MDD treatments. However, further studies are needed to clarify the patients with MDD who may benefit from these therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Ellul
- INSERM U955, eq15 Translational Psychiatry team, Paris Est University, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, Créteil, France
| | - L Boyer
- EA 3279 Research Unit - Public Health: Chronic Diseases and Quality of Life, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
| | - L Groc
- CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, UMR 5297, Bordeaux University, Bordeaux, France
| | - M Leboyer
- INSERM U955, eq15 Translational Psychiatry team, Paris Est University, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, Créteil, France.,Fondation FondaMental, Créteil, France
| | - G Fond
- INSERM U955, eq15 Translational Psychiatry team, Paris Est University, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, Créteil, France.,Fondation FondaMental, Créteil, France
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15
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Saghazadeh A, Esfahani SA, Rezaei N. Genetic polymorphisms and the adequacy of brain stimulation: state of the art. Expert Rev Neurother 2016; 16:1043-54. [PMID: 27228124 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2016.1194202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Heterogeneity of therapeutic response to brain stimulation techniques has inspired scientists to uncover the secrets to success or failure of these projects. Genetic polymorphisms are one of the major causes of this heterogeneity. AREAS COVERED More than twenty genetic variants within more than ten genes (e.g. BDNF, COMT, DRD2, TRPV1, 5-HT1A, 5-HHT, P2RX7, VEGF, TPH1, TPH2, ACE, APOE, GNB3, NET, NMDA receptors, and RGS4) have been investigated, among which the BDNF gene and its polymorphism, Val66Met, is the best documented variant. We review the genotypic combinations, which are reported to interact with the work of brain stimulation, of which the DRD2 C957T polymorphism is the most prominent type. Finally, implications of transcranial magnetic stimulation in deciphering the interaction between genetic background (e.g. SCN1A and 5-HTT) and drugs (e.g. carbamazepine and citalopram) at the cortical excitability level is explained. Expert commentary: Studies are ongoing to find missing factors responsible for heterogeneity of response to brain stimulation techniques. Further knowledge about genetic factors affecting the therapeutic response to brain stimulation techniques might provide helpful guidelines for choosing ideal candidates for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amene Saghazadeh
- a Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center , Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran , Iran.,b NeuroImmunology Research Association (NIRA) , Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Shadi A Esfahani
- c Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA.,d Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA) , Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN) , Boston , MA , USA
| | - Nima Rezaei
- a Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center , Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran , Iran.,e Department of Immunology, School of Medicine , Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran , Iran.,f Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA) , Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN) , Tehran , Iran
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16
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Aprile-Garcia F, Metzger MW, Paez-Pereda M, Stadler H, Acuña M, Liberman AC, Senin SA, Gerez J, Hoijman E, Refojo D, Mitkovski M, Panhuysen M, Stühmer W, Holsboer F, Deussing JM, Arzt E. Co-Expression of Wild-Type P2X7R with Gln460Arg Variant Alters Receptor Function. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151862. [PMID: 26986975 PMCID: PMC4795689 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The P2X7 receptor is a member of the P2X family of ligand-gated ion channels. A single-nucleotide polymorphism leading to a glutamine (Gln) by arginine (Arg) substitution at codon 460 of the purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) has been associated with mood disorders. No change in function (loss or gain) has been described for this SNP so far. Here we show that although the P2X7R-Gln460Arg variant per se is not compromised in its function, co-expression of wild-type P2X7R with P2X7R-Gln460Arg impairs receptor function with respect to calcium influx, channel currents and intracellular signaling in vitro. Moreover, co-immunoprecipitation and FRET studies show that the P2X7R-Gln460Arg variant physically interacts with P2X7R-WT. Specific silencing of either the normal or polymorphic variant rescues the heterozygous loss of function phenotype and restores normal function. The described loss of function due to co-expression, unique for mutations in the P2RX7 gene so far, explains the mechanism by which the P2X7R-Gln460Arg variant affects the normal function of the channel and may represent a mechanism of action for other mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Aprile-Garcia
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | | | - Matías Acuña
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana C. Liberman
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sergio A. Senin
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan Gerez
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Esteban Hoijman
- Centro de Microscopías Avanzadas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Damian Refojo
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany
| | - Mišo Mitkovski
- Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Walter Stühmer
- Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Florian Holsboer
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany
- HMNC Brain Health, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Eduardo Arzt
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires (IBioBA)-CONICET- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany
- * E-mail:
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17
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Lindberg D, Shan D, Ayers-Ringler J, Oliveros A, Benitez J, Prieto M, McCullumsmith R, Choi DS. Purinergic signaling and energy homeostasis in psychiatric disorders. Curr Mol Med 2016; 15:275-95. [PMID: 25950756 DOI: 10.2174/1566524015666150330163724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 02/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Purinergic signaling regulates numerous vital biological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). The two principle purines, ATP and adenosine act as excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, respectively. Compared to other classical neurotransmitters, the role of purinergic signaling in psychiatric disorders is not well understood or appreciated. Because ATP exerts its main effect on energy homeostasis, neuronal function of ATP has been underestimated. Similarly, adenosine is primarily appreciated as a precursor of nucleotide synthesis during active cell growth and division. However, recent findings suggest that purinergic signaling may explain how neuronal activity is associated neuronal energy charge and energy homeostasis, especially in mental disorders. In this review, we provide an overview of the synaptic function of mitochondria and purines in neuromodulation, synaptic plasticity, and neuron-glia interactions. We summarize how mitochondrial and purinergic dysfunction contribute to mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), depression, and addiction. Finally, we discuss future implications regarding the pharmacological targeting of mitochondrial and purinergic function for the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - D-S Choi
- Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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18
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De Marchi E, Orioli E, Dal Ben D, Adinolfi E. P2X7 Receptor as a Therapeutic Target. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2016; 104:39-79. [PMID: 27038372 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
P2X7 receptor is an ATP-gated cation channel that upon agonist interaction leads to cellular influx of Na(+) and Ca(2+) and efflux of K(+). P2X7 is expressed by a wide variety of cells and its activation mediates a large number of biological processes like inflammation, neuromodulation, cell death or cell proliferation and it has been associated to related pathological conditions including infectious, inflammatory, autoimmune, neurological, and musculoskeletal disorders and, in the last years, to cancer. This chapter describes structural features of P2X7, chemical properties of its agonist, antagonist, and allosteric modulators and summarizes recent advances on P2X7 receptor as therapeutic target in the aforementioned diseases. We also give an overview on recent literature suggesting that P2X7 single-nucleotide polymorphisms could be exploited as diagnostic biomarkers for the development of tailored therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena De Marchi
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Elisa Orioli
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Diego Dal Ben
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Elena Adinolfi
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.
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19
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Krügel U. Purinergic receptors in psychiatric disorders. Neuropharmacology 2015; 104:212-25. [PMID: 26518371 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Psychiatric disorders describe different mental or behavioral patterns, causing suffering or poor coping of ordinary life with manifold presentations. Multifactorial processes can contribute to their development and progression. Purinergic neurotransmission and neuromodulation in the brain have attracted increasing therapeutic interest in the field of psychiatry. Purine nucleotides and nucleosides are well recognized as signaling molecules mediating cell to cell communication. The actions of ATP are mediated by ionotropic P2X and metabotropic P2Y receptor subfamilies, whilst the actions of adenosine are mediated by P1 (A1 or A2) adenosine receptors. Purinergic mechanisms and specific receptor subtypes have been shown to be linked to the regulation of many aspects of behavior and mood and to dysregulation in pathological processes of brain function. In this review the recent knowledge on the role of purinergic receptors in the two most frequent psychiatric diseases, major depression and schizophrenia, as well as on related animal models is summarized. At present the most promising data for therapeutic strategies derive from investigations of the adenosine system emphasizing a unique function of A2A receptors at neurons and astrocytes in these disorders. Among the P2 receptor family, in particular P2X7 and P2Y1 receptors were related to disturbances in major depression and schizophrenia, respectively. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Purines in Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Krügel
- Rudolf Boehm Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Universität Leipzig, Härtelstrasse 16-18, 04107 Leipzig, Germany.
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20
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Paroxetine suppresses recombinant human P2X7 responses. Purinergic Signal 2015; 11:481-90. [PMID: 26341077 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-015-9467-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
P2X7 receptor (P2X7) activity may link inflammation to depressive disorders. Genetic variants of human P2X7 have been linked with major depression and bipolar disorders, and the P2X7 knockout mouse has been shown to exhibit anti-depressive-like behaviour. P2X7 is an ATP-gated ion channel and is a major regulator of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1β (IL-1β) secretion from monocytes and microglia. We hypothesised that antidepressants may elicit their mood enhancing effects in part via modulating P2X7 activity and reducing inflammatory responses. In this study, we determined whether common psychoactive drugs could affect recombinant and native human P2X7 responses in vitro. Common antidepressants demonstrated opposing effects on human P2X7-mediated responses; paroxetine inhibited while fluoxetine and clomipramine mildly potentiated ATP-induced dye uptake in HEK-293 cells stably expressing recombinant human P2X7. Paroxetine inhibited dye uptake mediated by human P2X7 in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC(50) of 24 μM and significantly reduces ATP-induced inward currents. We confirmed that trifluoperazine hydrochloride suppressed human P2X7 responses (IC(50) of 6.4 μM). Both paroxetine and trifluoperazine did not inhibit rodent P2X7 responses, and mutation of a known residue (F 95L) did not alter the effect of either drug, suggesting neither drug binds at this site. Finally, we demonstrate that P2X7-induced IL-1β secretion from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed human CD14(+) monocytes was suppressed with trifluoperazine and paroxetine.
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21
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Stokes L, Spencer SJ, Jenkins TA. Understanding the role of P2X7 in affective disorders-are glial cells the major players? Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:258. [PMID: 26217184 PMCID: PMC4495333 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathophysiology associated with several psychiatric disorders has been linked to inflammatory biomarkers. This has generated a theory of major depressive disorders as an inflammatory disease. The idea of pro-inflammatory cytokines altering behavior is now well accepted however many questions remain. Microglia can produce a plethora of inflammatory cytokines and these cells appear to be critical in the link between inflammatory changes and depressive disorders. Microglia play a known role in sickness behavior which has many components of depressive-like behavior such as social withdrawal, sleep alterations, and anorexia. Numerous candidate genes have been identified for psychiatric disorders in the last decade. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the human P2X7 gene have been linked to bipolar disorder, depression, and to the severity of depressive symptoms. P2X7 is a ligand-gated cation channel expressed on microglia with lower levels found on astrocytes and on some neuronal populations. In microglia P2X7 is a major regulator of pro-inflammatory cytokines of the interleukin-1 family. Genetic deletion of P2X7 in mice is protective for depressive behavior in addition to inflammatory responses. P2X7(-/-) mice have been shown to demonstrate anti-depressive-like behavior in forced swim and tail suspension behavioral tests and stressor-induced behavioral responses were blunted. Both neurochemical (norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine) and inflammatory changes have been observed in the brains of P2X7(-/-) mice. This review will discuss the recent evidence for involvement of P2X7 in the pathophysiology of depressive disorders and propose mechanisms by which altered signaling through this ion channel may affect the inflammatory state of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne Stokes
- School of Medical Sciences, Health Innovations Research Institute, RMIT UniversityMelbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, University of East AngliaNorwich, UK
| | - Sarah J. Spencer
- School of Health Sciences, Health Innovations Research Institute, RMIT UniversityMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Trisha A. Jenkins
- School of Medical Sciences, Health Innovations Research Institute, RMIT UniversityMelbourne, VIC, Australia
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22
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Mirzakhani H, van Noorden MS, Swen J, Nozari A, Guchelaar HJ. Pharmacogenetics in electroconvulsive therapy and adjunctive medications. Pharmacogenomics 2015; 16:1015-31. [DOI: 10.2217/pgs.15.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of patients with depression and other mental illnesses who do not respond to psychotropic medications or need urgent control of their symptoms. Pharmacogenetics contributes to an individual's sensitivity and response to a variety of drugs. Clinical insights into pharmacogenetics of ECT and adjunctive medications not only improves its safety and efficacy in the indicated patients, but can also lead to the identification of novel treatments in psychiatric disorders through understanding of potential molecular and biological mechanisms involved. In this review, we explore the indications of pharmacogenetics role in safety and efficacy of ECT and present the evidence for its role in patients with psychiatric disorders undergoing ECT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hooman Mirzakhani
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Division of Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Toxicology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn S van Noorden
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jesse Swen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Toxicology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ala Nozari
- Department of Anesthesia, Orthopedic Anesthesia Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Henk-Jan Guchelaar
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Toxicology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Ortiz R, Ulrich H, Zarate CA, Machado-Vieira R. Purinergic system dysfunction in mood disorders: a key target for developing improved therapeutics. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2015; 57:117-31. [PMID: 25445063 PMCID: PMC4262688 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Uric acid and purines (such as adenosine) regulate mood, sleep, activity, appetite, cognition, memory, convulsive threshold, social interaction, drive, and impulsivity. A link between purinergic dysfunction and mood disorders was first proposed a century ago. Interestingly, a recent nationwide population-based study showed elevated risk of gout in subjects with bipolar disorder (BD), and a recent meta-analysis and systematic review of placebo-controlled trials of adjuvant purinergic modulators confirmed their benefits in bipolar mania. Uric acid may modulate energy and activity levels, with higher levels associated with higher energy and BD spectrum. Several recent genetic studies suggest that the purinergic system - particularly the modulation of P1 and P2 receptor subtypes - plays a role in mood disorders, lending credence to this model. Nucleotide concentrations can be measured using brain spectroscopy, and ligands for in vivo positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of adenosine (P1) receptors have been developed, thus allowing potential target engagement studies. This review discusses the key role of the purinergic system in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Focusing on this promising therapeutic target may lead to the development of therapies with antidepressant, mood stabilization, and cognitive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Ortiz
- Experimental Therapeutics and Pathophysiology Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Departament of Biochemistry, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Carlos A Zarate
- Experimental Therapeutics and Pathophysiology Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics and Pathophysiology Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Laboratory of Neuroscience, LIM27, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
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P2X and P2Y receptors—role in the pathophysiology of the nervous system. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:23672-704. [PMID: 25530618 PMCID: PMC4284787 DOI: 10.3390/ijms151223672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Purinergic signalling plays a crucial role in proper functioning of the nervous system. Mechanisms depending on extracellular nucleotides and their P2 receptors also underlie a number of nervous system dysfunctions. This review aims to present the role of purinergic signalling, with particular focus devoted to role of P2 family receptors, in epilepsy, depression, neuropathic pain, nervous system neoplasms, such as glioma and neuroblastoma, neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis. The above-mentioned conditions are associated with changes in expression of extracellular ectonucleotidases, P2X and P2Y receptors in neurons and glial cells, as well as releasing considerable amounts of nucleotides from activated or damaged nervous tissue cells into the extracellular space, which contributes to disturbance in purinergic signalling. The numerous studies indicate a potential possibility of using synthetic agonists/antagonists of P2 receptors in treatment of selected nervous system diseases. This is of particular significance, since numerous available agents reveal a low effectiveness and often produce side effects.
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25
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Verhoeven WM, Egger JI, van den Bergh JP, van Beek R, Kleefstra T, de Leeuw N. A 12q24.31 interstitial deletion in an adult male with MODY3: Neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological characteristics. Am J Med Genet A 2014; 167A:169-73. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Willem M.A. Verhoeven
- Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry; Centre of Excellence for Neuropsychiatry; Venray The Netherlands
- Erasmus University Medical Centre; Department of Psychiatry; Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - Jos I.M. Egger
- Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry; Centre of Excellence for Neuropsychiatry; Venray The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain; Cognition and Behaviour; Behavioural Science Institute; Radboud University Nijmegen; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Joop P.W. van den Bergh
- VieCuri Medical Centre; Department of Internal Medicine; Venlo The Netherlands
- Maastricht University Medical Centre; Department of Internal Medicine; Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Ronald van Beek
- Department of Human Genetics; Radboud University Medical Centre; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Tjitske Kleefstra
- Department of Human Genetics; Radboud University Medical Centre; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Nicole de Leeuw
- Department of Human Genetics; Radboud University Medical Centre; Nijmegen The Netherlands
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Chronic stress induces prolonged suppression of the P2X7 receptor within multiple regions of the hippocampus: a cumulative threshold spectra analysis. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 42:69-80. [PMID: 24989856 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A number of studies have identified that mutations in the P2X7 receptor occur with a significantly higher incidence in individuals with major depression. Consistent with these findings, a number of preclinical studies have identified that mice in which the P2X7 receptor has been deleted exhibit a higher level of resilience-like behaviour to acutely aversive situations. At present, however, no studies have examined changes in P2X7 receptor expression in otherwise healthy animals exposed to persistently stressful situations. This is significant as several lines of evidence have demonstrated that it is exposure to persistently aversive, rather than acutely aversive, situations that is associated with the emergence of mood disturbance. Accordingly, the objective of the current study was to examine whether chronic exposure to restraint stress was associated with alterations in the expression of P2X7 within the hippocampal formation. The study involved three principal groups: acute stress (1 session), chronic stress (21 sessions, 1 per day) and a chronic stress with recovery group (21 sessions, 1 per day followed by 7days of no stress) and appropriate control groups. The results of the analysis indicate that all forms of stress, regardless of the duration, provoked a reduction in P2X7 receptor expression. Comparative analysis on normalised data indicated that the magnitude of the P2X7 reduction was significantly greater in the chronic stress relative to the acute stress group. We additionally found that there was a gradual rebound in P2X7 expression, in two of nine regions examined, in animals that were allowed to recover for 7days following the final stress session. Collectively, these findings provide the first evidence that exposure to chronic restraint stress produces a pronounced and relatively persistent suppression of the P2X7 receptor within the hippocampus.
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Sperlágh B, Illes P. P2X7 receptor: an emerging target in central nervous system diseases. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2014; 35:537-47. [PMID: 25223574 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The ATP-sensitive homomeric P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) has received particular attention as a potential drug target because of its widespread involvement in inflammatory diseases as a key regulatory element of the inflammasome complex. However, it has only recently become evident that P2X7Rs also play a pivotal role in central nervous system (CNS) pathology. There is an explosion of data indicating that genetic deletion and pharmacological blockade of P2X7Rs alter responsiveness in animal models of neurological disorders, such as stroke, neurotrauma, epilepsy, neuropathic pain, multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. Moreover, recent studies suggest that P2X7Rs regulate the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders, including mood disorders, implicating P2X7Rs as drug targets in a variety of CNS pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beáta Sperlágh
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Peter Illes
- Rudolf Boehm Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Leipzig, D-04107 Leipzig, Germany
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Feng WP, Zhang B, Li W, Liu J. Lack of association of P2RX7 gene rs2230912 polymorphism with mood disorders: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88575. [PMID: 24533115 PMCID: PMC3922924 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To assess the association of P2RX7 gene rs2230912 polymorphism with mood disorders using a meta-analysis. METHODS Data were collected from the following electronic databases: PubMed, Excerpta Medica Database, Elsevier Science Direct, Cochrane Library, and Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, with the last report up to April 1, 2013. Odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to assess the strength of the association. Dependent on the results of heterogeneity test among individual studies, the fixed effect model (Mantel-Haenszel) or random effect model (DerSimonian-Laird) was selected to summarize the pooled OR. RESULTS We identified 13 separate studies using search (6,962 cases and 9,262 controls). We detected significant between-study heterogeneity. No significant association of this polymorphism with mood disorders was found (P>0.05). We also performed disease-specific meta-analysis in unipolar depression and bipolar disorder. No significant association of this polymorphism with unipolar depression or bipolar disorder was found (P>0.05). Additionally, we performed subgroup analysis by different types of cases. No significant association of this polymorphism with mood disorders in clinical cohorts or population-based cohorts (P>0.05). A significant association of this polymorphism with mood disorders was found for the allele contrast in family-based cohorts (OR = 1.26, 95%CI = 1.05-1.50, P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Overall, our meta-analysis suggests that P2RX7 gene rs2230912 polymorphism may not contribute to the risk of developing mood disorders using a case-control design. Given the discordance in the subgroup analysis by different types of cases, further studies based on larger sample size are still needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ping Feng
- Department of Neurology, the affiliated Hospital of Shangluo Vocational and Technical College, Shangluo, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Central Hospital of Shangluo, Shangluo, China
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Neurology, Suzhou BenQ Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou, China
| | - Juan Liu
- Department of Neurology, Central Hospital of Shangluo, Shangluo, China
- * E-mail:
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29
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Halmai Z, Dome P, Vereczkei A, Abdul-Rahman O, Szekely A, Gonda X, Faludi G, Sasvari-Szekely M, Nemoda Z. Associations between depression severity and purinergic receptor P2RX7 gene polymorphisms. J Affect Disord 2013; 150:104-9. [PMID: 23602648 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BPD) have significant genetic predisposition. The P2RX7 gene (coding for P2X7 purinergic receptor) has been suggested as a susceptibility gene for both MDD and BPD. In the current study the genetic effects of rs2230912 (Gln460Arg) and rs1653625 (located in the 3' untranslated region of the P2RX7 gene) were explored in mood disorders. METHODS Genotype frequencies were established in 315 patients (195 with MDD and 120 with BPD diagnosis) and in 373 controls. Depression severity was assessed by the clinician-rated Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and by the self-report Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). RESULTS In the case-control analysis we did not find any significant differences between genotype frequencies of either BPD or MDD cases and controls. However, BPD patients carrying at least one rs2230912G-allele scored higher on both MADRS and HADS-depression scale (nominal p-value was 0.028 and 0.003, respectively). The rs1653625AA genotype was also associated with higher depression scores in the BPD group (nominal p-value of MADRS: 0.019, HADS-depression: 0.017). After correction for multiple testing, the association between rs2230912 and HADS-depression score remained significant in the BPD group (p<0.006); this genetic effect explained 9% of the variance (partial η(2)=0.09). In the MDD group we did not find any significant genetic effect. LIMITATIONS The relatively small number of BPD patients warrants for a replication study. CONCLUSIONS Our genetic association study supports the association between P2RX7 gene and severity of depressive symptoms in BPD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsuzsa Halmai
- Department of Clinical and Theoretical Mental Health, Kutvolgyi Clinical Center, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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The absence of P2X7 receptors (P2rx7) on non-haematopoietic cells leads to selective alteration in mood-related behaviour with dysregulated gene expression and stress reactivity in mice. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 16:213-33. [PMID: 22243662 PMCID: PMC3666310 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145711001933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore how genetic deletion and pharmacological antagonism of the P2X7 receptor (P2rx7) alter mood-related behaviour, gene expression and stress reactivity in the brain. The forced swim test (FST), tail suspension test (TST) and amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion (AH) tests were used in wild-type (P2rx7(+/+)) and P2rx7-deficient (P2rx7(-/-)) mice. Biogenic amine levels were analysed in the amygdala and striatum, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone levels were measured in the plasma and pituitary after restraint stress. Chimeric mice were generated by bone marrow transplantation. A whole genome microarray analysis with real-time polymerase chain reaction validation was performed on the amygdala. In the absence of P2rx7s decreased behavioural despair in the FST, reduced immobility in the TST and attenuated amphetamine-induced hyperactivity were detected. Basal norepinephrine levels were elevated in the amygdala, whereas stress-induced ACTH and corticosterone responses were alleviated in P2rx7(-/-) mice. Sub-acute treatment with the selective P2rx7 antagonist, Brilliant Blue G, reproduced the effect of genetic deletion in the TST and AH test in P2rx7(+/+) but not P2rx7(-/-) mice. No change in behavioural phenotype was observed in chimeras lacking the P2rx7 in their haematopoietic compartment. Whole genome microarray analysis indicated a widespread up- and down-regulation of genes crucial for synaptic function and neuroplasticity by genetic deletion. Here, we present evidence that the absence of P2rx7s on non-haematopoietic cells leads to a mood-stabilizing phenotype in several behavioural models and suggest a therapeutic potential of P2rx7 antagonists for the treatment of mood disorders.
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The genetics of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 136:375-400. [PMID: 22944042 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are among the most widely prescribed drugs in psychiatry. Based on the fact that SSRIs increase extracellular monoamine levels in the brain, the monoamine hypothesis of depression was introduced, postulating that depression is associated with too low serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline levels. However, several lines of evidence indicate that this hypothesis is too simplistic and that depression and the efficacy of SSRIs are dependent on neuroplastic changes mediated by changes in gene expression. Because a coherent view on global gene expression is lacking, we aim to provide an overview of the effects of SSRI treatment on the final targets of 5-HT receptor signal transduction pathways, namely the transcriptional regulation of genes. We address gene polymorphisms in humans that affect SSRI efficacy, as well as in vitro studies employing human-derived cells. We also discuss the molecular targets affected by SSRIs in animal models, both in vivo and in vitro. We conclude that serotonin transporter gene variation in humans affects the efficacy and side-effects of SSRIs, whereas SSRIs generally do not affect serotonin transporter gene expression in animals. Instead, SSRIs alter mRNA levels of genes encoding serotonin receptors, components of non-serotonergic neurotransmitter systems, neurotrophic factors, hypothalamic hormones and inflammatory factors. So far little is known about the epigenetic and age-dependent molecular effects of SSRIs, which might give more insights in the working mechanism(s) of SSRIs.
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